Economic theory is considered as an interdisciplinary science. Subject and method of economic theory. Questions for the interdisciplinary exam “Economic Theory. Methods of economic theory

General economic theory ( political Economy) studies the most general laws of development of social production. In Soviet times, it was divided into the political economy of capitalism and the political economy of socialism. It was entirely based on the economic writings of Marx and Engels. At one time, it was the official ideology of Soviet society, and it was mandatory studied in all universities and in all specialties. Now is another time. The Soviet system is gone. Soviet political economy also left with it. But the objective laws of social economic development remained, no one canceled them. They continue to operate and, whether we like it or not, have a decisive influence on our lives. Without the knowledge and use of these laws, optimal public policy. The current economic science is in crisis. This is evident to anyone who reads scientific economic journals and tries to compare what is written in them with our real life. The rejection of the official Soviet ideology was not accompanied by an adequate scientific search. However, it, by and large, was impossible in those conditions and on the basis of previous approaches. The “economics” read from Western textbooks was hastily taken into service. But it also does not fit well with the realities of our life. New times require fundamentally new methods and means of scientific research.

1. Interdisciplinary approach

Modern general economic theory can only be interdisciplinary and mathematically rigorous. This means that it must adopt the same research methods as natural science, where they have long been leading to reliable results and have considerable predictive power. Paradoxically, the deep analogy between economic and physicochemical processes turned out to be very useful. Although it has long been identified and comprehensively substantiated, nevertheless, it is this analogy that causes the greatest number of complaints. It is said that one cannot approach the humanities with the same means of investigation as in the natural sciences. They complain about the great complexity of social processes. They keep talking about the impassable abyss between the natural sciences and the humanities, about the impossibility of applying mathematics in the humanities, and so on. There is no need to knock on an open door and deny the existence of really big, fundamental differences between the humanities and natural sciences. These differences exist. But this indisputable fact only says that these differences should be taken into account in the course of the study. And this fact in no case can serve as a basis for rejecting the study itself. Critics of the new methodology do not take into account that their arguments have long been refuted by the entire history of the development of science. To date, many phenomena and processes have been studied and described in detail, including strictly mathematical ones, about which exactly the same pessimistic arguments were cited a hundred or two hundred years ago. This is just one side of the issue. The second is that modern social production is a complex dynamic system with many direct and feedback links. And for a deep understanding of the laws of the functioning of this complex system, the methods that are so familiar to full-time economists, sociologists, and political scientists are no longer suitable. In social production, parallel-sequential processes take place: mechanical, chemical, economic, environmental, biological, and others. Each type of processes is deeply studied by its independent science. But their totality requires an interdisciplinary approach for studying, requires creative interaction of various scientific disciplines. They say that now there are no generalists and that such interaction is ensured through the cooperation of narrow specialists of the relevant profile. They refer to the creation of rocket-space and other complex equipment. This is true and false. The task of a deep study of social production as a whole and in continuous development is too complicated. Here, first of all, it is required to correctly and accurately formulate the problem, characterize the object of study, and choose adequate methods and means. Moreover, the creation of scientific foundations is required for solving such a complex problem, without which it is useless to even start this work. Apparently, very few people can do it. It took about four decades. And such work requires continuous self-education. It is necessary to know political economy and concrete economics, higher and computational mathematics, history and philosophy, sociology and political science, psychology and anthropology. From what has been said, it follows that for a deep understanding of the essence of this interdisciplinary research, it is necessary to do some mental work. You need to spend time and energy to improve your educational level. Not everyone wants to do this. Many graduated and titled humanists have an extremely high opinion of themselves, occupy prestigious positions, have numerous students, and are prone to categorical, but essentially archaic and unproductive judgments. And why do they need a new approach to the study of social production? Unfortunately, many of them consider it a burden on themselves. It breaks away from the usual, well-established and prosperous life. Moreover, the results of these new studies may not be harmless at all. In the case of the correctness of these results, someone will have to admit that they are wrong during the entire scientific activity! Not to mention the fact that these results may affect the vital interests of many people, if the conclusions and forecasts of the new general economic theory will be adopted by those on whom key political decisions depend. The foregoing fully explains why the interdisciplinary general economic theory has not yet received official recognition. But it is needed by all those who really strive to understand the objective laws of social development, who are ready to work for this goal. It is needed by those whose interests are not limited to personal well-being, who are not indifferent to the fate of Russia, the future of our children and grandchildren. It is needed by those who are associated with Russia for life, who want to contribute to the policy of systematic, comprehensive, sustainable, crisis-free development of our country, who are interested in its worthy future.

2. "Animated" production function

The interdisciplinary general economic theory arose as a result of the identification of an analogy that, at first glance, is paradoxical and illegal, but upon closer analysis, it is very deep. The method of analogy has always played an important role in the development of natural science, in the genesis of great scientific discoveries. This is a separate big topic. In the case under consideration, we are talking about the presence of a deep analogy between the generalized mechanism of the labor process, first formulated in Karl Marx's Capital, and the mechanism of a catalytic reaction in physical chemistry. The source of the interdisciplinary general economic theory is the first mathematical modeling of the Marxist definition of the labor process. Why specifically Marxist? Because, as shown by many years of scrupulous analysis of the scientific heritage in the field of political economy, none of the other authors of fundamental economic works had a strictly scientific and sufficiently general definition of the concept of "labor". It appeared only in Marx's Capital. The main result in the interdisciplinary general economic theory is the derivation of the equation of the "animate" production function (abbreviated as OPF). It is called so because this equation includes, along with traditional macroeconomic quantities, "human factors" - the psychological factors of labor motivation. This is an important difference between the GTF and the usual production functions well known from mathematical economics. At the same time, it is interesting that the traditional Cobb-Douglas production function turns out to be a special case of the GTF. Taking into account the factors of labor motivation, the OPF gets a finished look and becomes suitable for a comprehensive display of any social economic system. The OPF equation includes the most important quantities on which the functioning of the socio-economic system depends: natural resources and the volume of economic space, capital (production assets), the number of employees, their motivation and competence, the factor of scientific and technological progress. The OPF equation shows, in particular, that if the value of any factor decreases sharply and approaches zero, then social production in a closed socio-economic system becomes impossible in principle. Consequently, in such a situation, the vital needs of people cannot be satisfied (if they cannot be satisfied through imports). Such a system will respond to such a situation with forced socio-economic changes. These changes can be evolutionary or revolutionary. In the course of these changes, forces are moving into the political arena that are capable of restoring and giving momentum to the factors of the OPF, to ensure the production necessary for the normal development of society. The OPF equation is applicable not only to the capitalist social formation, as the currently existing macro and micro economic models. It is applicable to social production as a whole, at any stage of its development. As special cases, the equations of animated production functions of various socio-economic systems follow from the general OPF equation. Along with the systems already known from history (primitive, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, socialist), the existence of others not yet known from historical experience is possible. This is an important conclusion from the OPF theory. It is especially important that the new theory allows a deeper understanding of the causes and essence of changes in Russia over the past century. The prospect of the development of Russian society in the future is becoming more predictable. modern world. Opportunities are opening up for a more meaningful, optimal policy. Along with the OPF equation, the new general economic theory derives the general economic balance equation, the aggregate consumption equation, the aggregate wages and others. Together with the OPF, they are suitable as tools for an adequate study of socio-economic dynamics. With their help, the causes and mechanisms of economic crises, methods for their prevention or mitigation of their consequences are studied. An important conclusion is that not only capitalist, but also other socio-economic systems can be subject to crises. It is especially important to identify the determining role of labor motivation factors in socio-economic changes. It is proved that the aggravation of the contradictions of the Soviet system and its subsequent crisis is, first of all, a crisis of labor motivation. The OPF equation and other equations of the new theory cannot be used for accurate quantitative calculations of complex socio-economic processes. The reason is that it is not possible to give an exact quantitative description of some quantities included in the OPF equation. Perhaps this will become possible in the future. In the meantime, the system of OPF equations can be used to qualitatively simulate socio-economic processes. This is an important method and has been used in mathematical economics for a long time. A similar situation occurs in natural science. For example, the well-known quantum-chemical Schrödinger equation accurately describes only the state of an electron in a hydrogen atom. It is not suitable for more complex atoms, but on its basis, semi-empirical methods have been developed for an approximate description of complex atoms and for interpreting the nature of a chemical bond. Interdisciplinary general economic theory is fundamentally different from the newfangled "economy". In the interdisciplinary general economic theory, real people act, and not soulless "economic agents" competing with each other to extract maximum profit. The new theory does not apply the well-known postulate of "economics" that no economic agent under any circumstances refuses even a small sum of money. And economic activity in the new theory is not limited to the mechanical movement of commodity and cash flows towards each other. An interdisciplinary general economic theory directly includes psychological, ethical, moral, moral factors in economic relations between people. The value of an interdisciplinary general economic theory is that it more fully takes into account the totality of socio-economic factors in their relationship. Therefore, it opens up the possibility of correct conclusions and forecasts where they still try to fantasize with a learned look or guess on the coffee grounds.

3. New theory works

Some economists believe that general economic theory is no longer needed in our time. In their opinion, in our age of specifics and pragmatism, financial calculations and business plans are quite enough. These economists are deeply mistaken. Without a modern general economic theory, it is impossible to understand either the key events in world history, or what happened in Russia during the 20th century, or current events in the country, or the most important trends in the development of the country in the modern world. Especially dangerous is the neglect of modern general economic theory on the part of current politicians. Political myopia has never led to good results. A lot of ordinary people have to pay for it. Interdisciplinary general economic theory is a generalization and development of the economic teachings of Karl Marx, Alfred Marshall, Wassily Leontiev, Gardiner Means and other prominent economists in relation to modern historical conditions. First of all, on a strictly scientific basis, it explains the socio-economic history, including the recent history of the twentieth century, including the socio-economic changes in Russia and in the world. Of course, everything that relates to historical events in Russia over the past decades is most relevant. A few years before Gorbachev's perestroika, the new theory revealed the fundamental contradiction of the Soviet version of socialism, which, due to objective historical conditions, turned out to be built in the USSR. It became clear that the aggravation of this contradiction makes transformations only a matter of time. The advent of perestroika confirmed the correctness of this forecast. At the same time, there were no objective prerequisites for the collapse of the USSR. The fundamental contradiction of the Soviet version of socialism was not antagonistic. It can and should have been overcome in an evolutionary way, by systematic and purposeful improvement of the Soviet political and economic system. The end of the Cold War, the move away from repressive domestic politics, was unequivocally positive. But the need for "radical economic reform" did not follow from the interdisciplinary general economic theory. It was a mistake, the consequences of which are well known. The considerable funds that were freed up as a result of easing international tension and moving away from the unrestrained arms race could and should have been directed to raising the living standards of the Soviet people. Economic transformations and the introduction of market elements, where it was possible and expedient, should be carried out according to plan, under state control, avoiding a collapse due to the non-synchronous introduction of adequate substitutes for the previous methods of management. The thesis about the lack of time did a poor job. Haste and irresponsibility, ill-conceived political measures led to an uncontrolled development of events, to the collapse of the national economy, to the impoverishment of many people, to unprecedented social stratification, to a surge in crime. The subject of an interdisciplinary general economic theory are important issues that still continue to excite the minds, remain the subject of heated debate. Is communism really a utopia, or is it an unrealized historical possibility? Was Perestroika-85 an objective pattern or a historical accident? Why did the USSR collapse? The new theory analyzes all the main aspects of the "radical economic reform": the decline in production, inflation, privatization, competition, economic space, trade, social stratification, etc. The issue of classes and class struggle, political parties and real social needs is also considered in a new way. . The nineties passed under the sign of destruction, not creation. Further development of events in this direction was fraught with a complete catastrophe of the national economy, the collapse of Russia after the Soviet Union, the complete loss of the country's defense capability, a surge in social discontent and, ultimately, a new revolution. Awareness of this prospect led to a change of power in Russia at the turn of the century. The new leadership in the person of Vladimir Putin, with great difficulty, managed to prevent the worst, to pull the country away from the fatal line. The next decade was characterized by the strengthening of state influence both in the economy and in social policy. From the standpoint of an interdisciplinary general economic theory, this was inevitable and necessary to preserve the integrity of the country and its national security. Of course, this also resulted in negative consequences in the form of bureaucracy, corruption, increased control over business activities, and some restrictions on political freedoms. But all this was a much lesser evil compared to what awaited the country at the end of Yeltsinism. Modern general economic theory clearly shows the state of the current Russian society. Objectively, a new impetus is needed for the development of the country, for the restoration and development of domestic production, for the transition to an innovative path in science and technology. But modernization is not another revolution, but an accelerated evolution. Calls for a new liberalization, as well as for a return to the Soviet past, are fraught with great danger. In its further development, Russia no longer has the right to slide either towards chaos and anarchy, or towards totalitarianism and dictatorship. Russia's movement along the path of banal capitalism, with its unbridled selfishness, general venality and regular destructive crises, would be an unforgivable historical mistake. After all the "isms" experienced by our country, the only real alternative is the path to a new humane society. It will adopt all the best from our historical experience, ensure sustainable, crisis-free development of the country and well-being for the majority of the population. It will set an example for other peoples, ensure Russia's intellectual leadership in the world in the name of a timely and peaceful resolution of the escalating global problems, in the name of the survival and development of mankind on Earth. Interdisciplinary general economic theory has been working for several decades. She explained formational change on a historical time scale. She revealed the fundamental contradiction of the Soviet version of socialism and predicted perestroika in the USSR. She unequivocally negatively characterized the extreme danger of Yeltsinism and predicted the inevitable transition from chaos and anarchy in Russia to a controlled and responsible democracy. It predicts the inevitability of Russia's return to the path of restoration and development of the national economy, restoration and development of domestic production on a planned basis, while maintaining a reasonable degree of integration into world economy and mutually beneficial international cooperation. She predicts the irreversibility of integration processes in the post-Soviet space, the restoration and development of a single economic space. These predictions are also beginning to come true. All this gives reason to consider the interdisciplinary general economic theory as reliable, adequate to social practice.

4. About foreign policy

An interdisciplinary general economic theory is also useful for developing an optimal foreign policy. Russia's integration into the world economic system, which is objectively necessary and expedient, should not entail the loss of national security. Excessive openness to the outside world is just as dangerous as international isolation. Russia should enter the world economic system not as a beggar or a dependent, but as an independent force capable of both defending national interests and increasing world wealth. An important result of the interdisciplinary general economic theory is the development of a relatively simple and at the same time sufficiently general mathematical model of world dynamics. The model includes seven equations and reflects the influence of the most important socio-economic factors on the dynamics of the "world wealth function" (WFW). These factors include natural resources, population, production assets, the volume of economic space, scientific and technological progress, labor motivation. The model is suitable for a simulation study of the main trends in world development in the historical dimension. The model shows that with the general exponential growth of world wealth, there is a contradictory, reciprocating nature of world dynamics. At the same time, the FMB dynamics reveals an interesting regularity: from the very beginning, there is a tendency towards less and less reversible and more and more progressive change in time. In its movement towards progress, humanity behaves like a giant self-learning system. At each historical stage, recessions become less and less deep, the duration of remissions is increasingly shortened, the speed and level of recovery increase. The historical process is "compressed in time". These results are in full agreement with the well-known phenomenon of shrinking the terms of scientific and technological progress. Waves of technological change, generated by scientific discoveries and inventions, followed each other at ever shorter intervals. The time interval between the discoveries of "pure" science and the beginning of their use in technology was constantly decreasing. It took about a hundred years for the steam engine to take its place in industry; for electrical energy, this interval was about fifty years; for the internal combustion engine, the period of widespread use has been reduced to thirty years. Even less time has passed from the discovery of a chain reaction of fission of atomic nuclei to its practical use for military and peaceful purposes. It may seem that what has been said has no direct bearing on Russia's foreign policy. But this is only at first glance. Humanity is entering the era of nanotechnology. It is not difficult to imagine to what flourishing of civilization the use of these discoveries can lead. And, conversely, what a catastrophe humanity can slide into if these funds are in the hands of unscrupulous egoists from the economy and irresponsible adventurers from politics. The interdisciplinary general economic theory unambiguously predicts the self-destruction of humanity if in the coming century it is not imbued with responsibility for its own destiny, if it does not find the strength to carry out the necessary socio-economic changes in this "nano-era" in order to curb the unbridled egoism of national elites with their unrestrained competition and confrontation. From competition and confrontation to coordination and cooperation! This is now not just a slogan, but an indispensable condition for the survival and development of civilization. This is all the more important because the current stage of the scientific and technological revolution is unfolding against the backdrop of a dangerous aggravation of global threats. The interdisciplinary general economic theory formulates the fundamental contradiction of the modern era as a contradiction between the objectively inevitable globalization of markets, on the one hand, and the continuing separation of the peoples of the planet in the face of a common danger, on the other. Mineral depletion, energy and food shortages, global climate change, air pollution, rising sea levels, depletion of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, reduction and destruction of forests, soil erosion, expanding deserts, dying lakes, depletion of groundwater, the threat of extinction existing species animals and plants, the emergence of new dumps for toxic waste and their poisoning of groundwater - all these are realities that threaten life on Earth. There are already millions of refugees around the world. Uncontrolled migration poses a real danger to political stability and peace. International terrorism is just a consequence. It cannot be dealt with by military measures alone. The use of force is justified only in the context of a broad and coordinated policy. This bouquet of global threats can be defeated only by joint efforts. The United Nations must become more capable. Today, the UN faces a most difficult historical task, on the solution of which the very existence of mankind depends more than ever before. It is necessary to organize a turn in the public consciousness from unbridled egoism to reasonable self-restraint, from indifference to help, from confrontation to cooperation. Can humanity survive? Will it be able to start acting according to an agreed reasonable plan? Will the collective mind be enough to carry out major international programs in a timely manner: humanitarian, scientific and technical, socio-economic? The nature of world dynamics revealed by the interdisciplinary general economic theory gives hope. Humanity has already learned a lot. The world at one time witnessed the end of the Cold War, the removal of the Iron Curtain, the declared intention to carry out a "reset" in relations between the two nuclear superpowers - Russia and the United States. Russia is making unprecedented efforts to strengthen integration in the post-Soviet space, to establish cooperation between the countries of Europe and Asia. There is a difficult dialogue between Russia and NATO. Unfortunately, these integration processes meet resistance and fail in various parts of the world. Especially dangerous are the events in Ukraine and the imposition of Western "sanctions" in response to the measures taken by Russia to protect its security. Political will and great diplomatic skill are needed to prevent the disruption of manifestations of good will, to put a barrier on the path of the backward movement of history, to prevent a recurrence of the arms race.

5. Ideology or science?

Interdisciplinary general economic theory is a serious science, and not one of many ideologies. The difference between science and ideology is clearly visible already at the everyday level. There is a good Jewish anecdote. An old woman comes to the rabbi. Complains that her chicken died, and asks for advice. The rabbi gave her advice. A few days later, another chicken died, and she again went to the rabbi for advice. The rabbi gave her advice again. But a few days passed, and the third chicken died on the old woman. The old woman received another piece of advice from the rabbi. This went on until the poor old woman had all her chickens dead. And when she turned to the rabbi for the last time, he said: “What a pity, but I had so many more ideas!” Indeed, ideologies can be invented as many as you like. There are many of them: liberal, totalitarian, some intermediate ones. Serious science is always the same. All ideologists understand this well and often try to disguise their ideology as serious science. But there is a big difference between ideology and science. It lies in the fact that the goal of science is not an invention that is beneficial to its author, but a reflection in the human mind of objective phenomena and processes of the material world. This statement is often objected to, that scientists are also people, that they tend to err, and that from this point of view there is no fundamental difference between ideology and science. This objection does not change the essence of the matter. The fact that twice two is four has long been beyond doubt. Modern natural science has an equally accurate knowledge of many scientific truths. It's harder in the humanities. They have not yet reached the same degree of rigor and reliability. But things are gradually moving towards this. Interdisciplinary general economic theory contributes to this objective process of convergence between the humanities and the natural sciences. Natural science is easier in verifying the reliability of scientific knowledge - you can put an experiment. You can't do an experiment in social science. Here, the decisive criterion for the reliability of scientific knowledge is the comparison of scientific theory with social practice, with life. To test the truth of a new theory, a long period of time is required here, as a rule, beyond the life of a scientist, and sometimes many generations. Such a check usually becomes the lot of descendants, if they, of course, want to do this. Article 13 of the Constitution Russian Federation it is written that ideological diversity is recognized in today's Russia and that no ideology can be established as a state or mandatory one. This important constitutional provision should refer specifically to ideology, but not to science. As the human sciences develop, politicians will increasingly be able to rely on their results. In the meantime, forums, debates, round tables, brainstorming sessions are in vogue. They say that truth is born in disputes. Is it always like this? Hardly. Most likely, the truth is not born in disputes, but is obtained by the work of scientists. The great Leonardo da Vinci said this beautifully 500 years ago: “And truly, where there is a lack of reasonable arguments, they are replaced by a cry, which does not happen with reliable things. That is why we say: where there is shouting, there is no true science. Truth has one single solution, and when it is announced, the dispute ceases forever. (Leonardo da Vinci. Selected works of natural sciences. M.: Izd. AN SSSR, 1955, p. 9).

Perestroika -

The subject of economic science.

The constituent parts of modern economic theory and the immediate subject of its individual parts can be correctly defined in the context of two fundamental features:

1. Economic theory develops along with society - economics and theoretical views on the economy evolve along with the development of real economic relations.

2. The complication of economic relations, the emergence of new models of economic systems inevitably gives rise to the differentiation of economic theory and the emergence of new trends and schools.

Thus, we can conclude that the subject of economic theory is economic relations in society.

Economic theory, analyzing economic relations in society, must answer a number of fundamental questions:

1. What are economic relations, how are they arranged, what are their main structural elements, goals and forms of movement?

2. How does the economic system function, how is the interconnection of its elements in the process of functioning, and what impact does economic decision making have?

3. How does the system of economic relations interact with other spheres of society and, above all, with the social sphere and politics?

Method

Methodology is a general approach to the study of economic phenomena, a system of methods and techniques of analysis with a certain philosophical approach: subjective, dialectical-materialistic, empirical, rationalistic.

The methodology is based on methods. A method is a set of techniques, methods, principles by which ways to achieve goals are determined. If the subject of science and its methodology are characterized by what is being researched, then the method is characterized by how it is being researched.

Methods of economic theory:

Method of analysis and synthesisanalysis involves the division of the object or phenomenon under consideration into separate parts and the determination of the properties of a single element. With the help of synthesis, a complete picture of the phenomenon as a whole is obtained.

Method of induction and deductionwith the method of induction, the study of individual facts, principles and the formation of general theoretical concepts on the basis of obtaining results (from the particular to the general) takes place. The deduction method involves research from general principles, laws, when the provisions of the theory are distributed into separate phenomena.

System approach methodconsiders a separate phenomenon or process as a system consisting of a certain number of interconnected elements that interact and affect the efficiency of the entire system as a whole.

Method of mathematical modelinginvolves the construction of graphical, formalized models that characterize individual economic phenomena or processes in a simplified form.

Method of scientific abstractionmakes it possible to exclude from consideration individual non-essential relationships between subjects of the economy and to focus on the consideration of several subjects.

1. Positive and normative economic theory.

Many economists draw a sharp line between issues of efficiency and equity. Efficiency discussions are seen as part of positive economics, which deals with facts and real dependencies. Debates about justice are part of normative economics, that is, the branch of science that makes judgments about whether particular economic conditions and policies are good or bad.

Normative economic theoryis related not only to the problem of fairness in the distribution of the product. Value judgments are also possible about the remaining three basic choices made by every economic system: when deciding what to produce, would it be fair to allow the production of tobacco and alcoholic beverages while at the same time banning the production of marijuana and cocaine? When making the choice "how to produce", is it possible to allow people to work in dangerous or harmful conditions, or should work in these conditions be prohibited? When deciding who gets to do what kind of work, is it fair to restrict access to different types of work based on age, gender, or race? Regulatory issues cover all aspects of the economy.

positive theorywithout offering any value judgments, focuses on the processes by which people get answers to four basic economic questions. This theory analyzes the operation of the economy, the influence of certain institutions and political actions on the economic system. Positive science traces the connections between facts, looking for measurable patterns in ongoing processes.

The purpose of economic theory is, first, to describe and explain the processes of production and circulation; secondly, to ensure the proper economic behavior of economic entities. In both cases, we first have

deal with positive economics, and then with normative. Positive economics describes the facts, conditions, relations in the economic sphere, the relationship between them, the most significant processes of economic activity and their interaction with other economic and social processes. In a word, positive economics deals with the disclosure of the content side of the phenomena and processes of the economic life of society, i.e. disclosure of economic laws and patterns.

In conclusion, we can say that positive economics is concerned with the knowledge and operation of economic laws, while normative economics is concerned with their application.

1. Cognitive and applied functions of economic science.

First of all, one can distinguishcognitive functioneconomic science. This function allows us, in the conditions of constant dynamism of the external environment, to expand our knowledge in the field of complex economic processes, to study the forms and essence of economic phenomena. Human life is permeated with the economy, so it is necessary to study its laws.

Economic theory is peculiar as a theoretical science, since it does not answer every specific question, but is intended to provide a scientific approach to solving any of these issues, to develop a concept. It follows that the cognitive function of economic science involves:

1) study of the system of economic relations, study of the behavior of economic entities at the micro and macro levels;

2) the study of economic contradictions and a description of their system (for example, between labor and capital, supply and demand, accumulation and consumption, etc.).

Also note methodological and predictive functioneconomic science.Methodological functiongives theoretical basis for research in applied economic sciences, andpredictiveallows predicting short-term and long-term economic development.

By using methodological functionmethods and means of scientific tools are being developed, which are necessary for all economic sciences. The purpose of this function is to separate the subject of economic theory from the objects that are studied by related disciplines.

practical functioneconomic science is expressed in the development of economic policy by the state, and allows you to make the right choice in its implementation. That is, the practical function of economic science is to scientifically explain the economic policy pursued by the state, as well as to identify the principles and methods of rational economic management.

Since economics is based on living experience, we can distinguishempirical function. This function means that, like any scientific activity, economic experiments and research are empirical in nature.

When considering the question of the functions performed by economic science, sometimes allocateeducational function, the meaning of which is to form a certain way of economic thinking.

1. Economic categories and economic laws.

As the well-known English economist A. Marshall argued, economic laws are an expression of social trends, "a generalization that states that under certain conditions, members of a social group can be expected to act in a certain way."

In the literature we find the following definition of economic law:

An economic law is an essential, necessary, stable relationship in economic phenomena and processes that determines their development.

In accordance with this definition, one can treat economic law as a special objective phenomenon and study its essence, content, structure (form) and conditions of action and manifestation.

The essence of economic law lies in expressing the essential connection of the mode of production, that is, the concretization of the essence of the law is directly related to the disclosure of the essence of this connection, which is predominantly a causal, causal relationship, one side of which determines the other.

According to its content, economic law is dialectical in nature.

The elements of the content of the law are:

1. side of the causal relationship;

2. the process of interaction between these parties;

3. forms of interaction between them;

4. the result of this interaction.

The complication of economic life and the interweaving of economic ties, the increase in influencing factors lead to the fact that traditional economic laws are modified and neutralized, manifesting themselves as trends in the development of a given period or a specific historical era.

The society has a system of economic laws. They are interconnected. There are the following economic laws:

1. Universal Laws - acting at all stages of human development

Societies, in all socio-economic formations:

I. Laws of increasing needs;

II. Laws of social division of labor;

III. Laws of increasing labor productivity, etc.

2. General Economic Laws- operate in the presence of common social

Economic conditions (commodity-money relations):

I. Laws of value;

II. Laws of supply and demand;

III. Laws of money circulation and. others

Economic categorythis is a logical concept that reflects in an abstract form the most significant aspects of economic phenomena, processes, mechanisms. Abstractions that reflect reality have their own life cycle. They can leave scientific circulation, they can return

depending on how relevant they are, i.e. how intensively the processes of reality proceed, which they reflect.

Since economic phenomena, processes and mechanisms are interconnected in space and time, the categories that reflect them are also interconnected, which manifests itself as interaction, confrontation,

complementarity and neutrality. Any branch of scientific knowledge carries out typification, classification of the set of studied phenomena. The result of these generalizations in economics and reflect economic categories. Economic category scientifically collective concept,

abstractly, generalized characterizing the essence of many homogeneous, similar economic phenomena.

Consider an example:

Property is one of those concepts around which the best minds of mankind have crossed for many centuries. However, the matter is not limited to the struggle in theoretical terms. Social upheavals, from which the whole world sometimes shudders, ultimately have one of their main reasons for attempts to change the existing property relations, to establish new system these relationships.

In our country during the twentieth century there was a breakdown of property relations twice. The first began in October 1917 and ended with an unprecedented catastrophe, the consequences of which will be assessed from geometrically opposite positions for more than one generation. The second is happening today. Its main goal is to return property relations to their true content, to put together a sufficiently wide layer of private owners who would become the social support of the current regime.

1. Historical types of property relations and their characteristics by representatives of various scientific schools.

The question of forms of ownership is one of the most complex in economic theory. The classification of forms of ownership can be carried out historically by describing successive forms of ownership. Each of the historical forms, in turn, is specified by objects and subjects of ownership, by the nature of the appropriation of the results of production, and other features. Such a classification is close to the traditional formational classification, although it does not completely coincide with it.

Historically, the first form was collective, communal property. This primitive form of ownership is characterized by the fact that property rights have not yet been formed and, accordingly, there were no institutions and mechanisms for their distribution and redistribution. Consequently, there were no conditions for the formation of economic power and economic dependence. Equal rights to living conditions, joint work and a common result were the hallmarks of primitive appropriation.

As a result of a long historical process, accompanied by the development of productive forces and the transition from collective labor and a common economy to individual labor and small farms isolated from each other, the community was disintegrating and private property. Cattle, implements and other movable property, and then land, became objects of the exclusive property of individual families. Initially, private property rested on the family's own labor. But over time, based on the progress of the productive forces, the process of growing property inequality, depriving individual families of land led to the emergence of private property based on the appropriation of the results of other people's labor. Exploitation of man by man arises, society splits into classes of exploiters and exploited. This so-called. the ancient form of property is characterized by an extremely high concentration of property rights among private individuals, provided that the right of full ownership extended to people. The absolute concentration of property rights in some individuals corresponded to an equally absolute lack of rights in others, who generally lost signs of personality.

The subsequent development of human society was accompanied by a consistent movement towards equality of personal rights and freedoms. In this historical movement, after the ancient one, feudal property arose (Europe of the 5th century, Kievan Rus). It was characterized by absolute ownership of the conditions of production and limited ownership of people. The basis of feudal private property is the ownership of land and the exploitation of personally dependent peasants. Unlike the slave, the peasant was a participant in property relations, since he owned a small plot of land and the means of production necessary for its cultivation. Feudalism is characterized by a form of ownership in which the land did not belong exclusively to an individual. Mutual relations both within the class of feudal lords (seigneurs, vassals) and its ties with direct producers were built on personal domination and subordination. It was not free and complete private ownership of land, but conditional land ownership, limited by relations of personal domination and subordination, with which the political and military power of the feudal class was directly connected.

In the depths of feudalism, property relations also arose that were not connected with the attachment of producers to the land. In addition to the small private property of free peasants, there was the property of urban artisans, separated from land and free from serfdom, who manufactured goods for sale (Europe of the 10th-11th centuries, Rus' of the 9th-13th centuries).

Ancient and feudal property have in common that economic power was supplemented by power over the personality of people.

In connection with the liberation from personal dependence, the development of productive forces and commodity production, capitalist property arises (Europe in the 15th century, Russia in the 19th century), which differs essentially from the previous forms: it is based on the complete separation of the direct producers from the material conditions of their labor. On the one hand, the legal equality of all citizens is affirmed, and on the other hand, a new type of relationship: the economic power of some and the economic dependence of others. Large-scale private ownership of land appeared, and with it a mass of formally free, but having nothing but their own working hands, people (with an equal distribution civil rights there is an unequal distribution and concentration of property rights). In contrast to the private property of small commodity producers, capitalist private property is based on the gratuitous appropriation of the materialized results of the labor of others, the exploitation of man by man in the form of appropriation of surplus value (the amount by which the value of a worker's daily output exceeds his daily wage).

There are intermediate forms of ownership, which involve the redistribution of property rights in order to limit the economic power of some and free others from the economic dependence. An example is the participation of employees in management, distribution of income, control, etc.

In the course of the socialist revolution, a new social form of ownership arises - socialist. In the theories of this form of property, it was assumed that property relations under capitalism are historically the last forms based on the exploitation of man by man. It was proclaimed that, due to the contradictions inherent in the capitalist mode of production, and, above all, the growing contradiction between the social character of production and the capitalist form of appropriation, they completely exhaust themselves. The experience of building socialism (Russia-USSR 1917-1991, the GDR 1949-1990, Poland 1947-1990, etc.) was an attempt to equalize people not only in rights and freedoms, but also in ownership rights to the conditions and results of production.

Modern trends in the world economy indicate that the post-industrial development of society will be accompanied by an increasing distribution of absolute private property rights and an increasing variety of combinations of rights between the subjects of economic relations involved in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods. The scientific and technological revolution has determined the growing trend towards an increase in the role of state property. This form essentially differs from private property in that its direct subject is the state. But basically the current market economy is characterized by collective, corporate, mixed forms of ownership. In a fairly typical market-type capitalist economy, 10-15% of the means of production are in individual private ownership, 60-70% - in a collective corporate, joint-stock, 15-25% - in the state.

1. The concepts of limited resources, rational choice and opportunity cost.

One of the first problems, called economic, is that human needs always exceed the possibilities that exist at the moment of their satisfaction. Economic theory says that the needs of an individual and society as a whole are unlimited, while the resources of any society are limited at any given time.

Target economic activity people meet their needs through the use of limited resources, production, distribution and consumption of various goods and services. Those resources that are necessary for the implementation of the production process are called factors of production, there are four of them: labor, capital, natural resources (land), entrepreneurial ability, information. These resources, despite their diversity and variety, have one thing in common - they are limited. In the entire history of mankind, no society has been able to provide enough resources to meet all the needs of its members for goods and services. People will always face the problem of the efficient use of their resources, which would bring the maximum return, the greatest effect.

Economic theory proceeds from the premise of the rationality of people's behavior in the economy. This means that people set certain goals for themselves and use the time and means at their disposal to achieve them. However, these funds and time are also a limited resource. People must prioritize their goals and make choices about how best to use their resources.

Thus, the economic actions of people are the result of a conscious choice, involving the expenditure of time and limited resources to achieve some goal. Such a choice means that the given time and resources will no longer be used to achieve other goals: a person who wants to walk, prepare for a test, visit the volleyball section at the same time, must choose one thing and come to terms with the fact that part of his needs will remain unsatisfied.

Rational choice involves an assessment of the decision made, i.e. comparison of costs and benefits associated with available solutions. Closely related to this assessment is the notion of opportunity cost. Opportunity cost is an estimate of lost profits, a payment for a decision.

1. The concept of bounded rationality.

Some social science models of human behavior suggest that human behavior can be adequately described by assuming that humans behave as "rational" beings (see, for example, rational choice theory). Many economic models assume that people are hyperrational and never do anything that is contrary to their interests. The concept of bounded rationality questions these propositions in order to take into account that in reality perfectly rational decisions are hardly feasible in practice due to the limited computing resources necessary for their adoption.

The term was coined by Herbert Simon. In Patterns of My Life, Simon points out that most people are only partly rational and emotional or irrational at other times. In another work, he states that "agents of bounded rationality have difficulty in formulating and solving complex problems, and processing (receiving, storing, using, transmitting) information. Simon describes a number of ways in which the classical model of rationality can be supplemented and reduced to greater correspondence with reality, remaining within the framework of strict formalism:

a constraint on what kind of utility functions can be.

accounting for the cost of collecting and processing information

the possibility of the existence of a vector utility function

Simon suggested that economic agents use heuristic analysis rather than strict application of optimization rules, due to the complexity of the situation and the inability to calculate and account for the utility of every possible action. The cost of assessing the situation can be very high, while other economic activities may also require similar decisions. Daniel Kahneman positions the theory of bounded rationality as a model to overcome the limitations of the common model of rational agents.

1. Private, club, public and public goods.

Private is good, each unit of which can be sold to the consumer for a certain price. Each private good has a very specific consumer. In the markets there is an exchange of private goods for money.

Properties of private goods:

Private goods are acquired on an individual basis, in accordance with the tastes and demand of specific consumers (selective property).

All private goods are represented by individual commodity units. The consumption of one unit of a private good by some consumer makes it impossible for another consumer to consume in relation to that unit of the good (divisibility).

Every private good has a price. Even the lowest price makes consumption impossible for some of the potential consumers, i.e. the price excludes the good from the consumption of some persons (exclusivity).

Any price must pay for the cost of producing the good (return on costs).

Thus, the pricing of private goods has a market mechanism, the choice of private goods is free, and the amount of personal consumption is easy to determine.

public goodsbenefits that have the following characteristics:

sign of non-exclusionit is almost impossible to exclude a person from the circle of consumers of this good

sign of noncompetitiveness in consumptionthe consumption of a good by one person does not reduce the possibility of consumption by another

sign of indivisibilitythe good cannot be decomposed into separate units

This definition is well illustrated by the following examples:

the lighthouse that guides sailors at night shines on all who reach its light.

ensured internal and external security of the state is available to all who are on its territory.

Public goods are not at all like private goods, it is almost impossible to organize their sale: individuals enjoy the effects of public goods, but avoid paying for them (free rider effect).

There are not so many pure public goods; mixed goods are more common, including properties from both private and public goods. These are club, overloaded goods and general resources, such as pure water and fish in the sea.

There is an opinion that only the state can provide public goods, but this is not so. In the 17th century in England, lighthouses were built by private individuals for individual benefit, while there was a special public service created, among other things, for the construction of lighthouses; and racketeers, for example, offer protection of property rights from members of their own and other organizations.

1. Motivation of economic behavior.

The motivation of economic behavior is understood as a set of moving forces that encourage the subject (subjects) to carry out economic actions. Such forces compel people consciously or unconsciously to do certain things. The connection between these forces and human actions is mediated by a complex system of interactions.

Motivation gives economic activity a social orientation, focused on achieving certain goals, sets the boundaries and forms of economic behavior. Understanding the social mechanisms of motivation is of great practical importance for the effective management of economic activity and the skillful use of the human factor in the economy.

Any economic activity of people is carried out for the realization of certain needs. Need is the need for a business entity to acquire and use various benefits for its normal functioning.

The following groups of needs of economic activity participants are distinguished:

1. The needs of production and economic activities that are necessary to ensure simple and expanded reproduction. These are the needs for raw materials, finances, technologies, production capacities, etc.

1. The needs of people necessary for their normal all-round development, which are satisfied jointly by the whole society (in education, health care, socio-cultural infrastructure, etc.)

1. Individual needs of the individual, including material needs (for food, clothing, housing, etc.), spiritual needs (for knowledge, familiarization with science, creativity, etc.), social needs (for self-expression, self-affirmation, social activity, social growth, social solidarity, stability, self-preservation, etc.)

This classification does not exhaust the whole variety of needs. In world science, more than 50 theories of motivation have been developed, in which the influence of needs on motivation is analyzed. These theories include: Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory,

Alderfer's theory, McClelland's theory of acquired needs, W. Vroom's theory of expectation, etc.

1. Philosophical and methodological premises of economic theories.

1. Principles and methods of economic and theoretical research.

1. Significance and limits of application of mathematical methods in economic research.

The penetration of mathematics into economics is associated with overcoming significant difficulties. This was partly "guilty" of mathematics, which has been developing over several centuries, mainly in connection with the needs of physics and technology. But the main reasons still lie in the nature of economic processes, in the specifics of economic science.

The complexity of the economy was sometimes considered as a justification for the impossibility of its modeling, study by means of mathematics. But this point of view is fundamentally wrong. You can model an object of any nature and any complexity. And just complex objects are of the greatest interest for modeling; this is where modeling can provide results that cannot be obtained by other methods of research.

The potential possibility of mathematical modeling of any economic objects and processes does not mean, of course, its successful feasibility at a given level of economic and mathematical knowledge, available specific information and computer technology. And although it is impossible to indicate the absolute boundaries of the mathematical formalizability of economic problems, there will always be still unformalized problems, as well as situations where mathematical modeling is not effective enough.

Features of economic observations and measurements.

Already long time the main brake on the practical application of mathematical modeling in the economy is the filling of the developed models with specific and high-quality information. The accuracy and completeness of primary information, the real possibilities of its collection and processing largely determine the choice of types of applied models. On the other hand, economic modeling studies put forward new requirements for the information system.

Depending on the objects being modeled and the purpose of the models, the initial information used in them has a significantly different nature and origin. It can be divided into two categories: about the past development and the current state of objects (economic observations and their processing) and about the future development of objects, including data on expected changes in their internal parameters and external conditions (forecasts). The second category of information is the result of independent research, which can also be carried out through modeling.

Methods of economic observations and the use of the results of these observations are being developed economic statistics. Therefore, it is worth noting only the specific problems of economic observations associated with the modeling of economic processes.

In the economy, many processes are massive; they are characterized by patterns that are not detectable on the basis of only one or a few observations. Therefore, modeling in economics should be based on mass observations.

Another problem is generated by the dynamism of economic processes, the variability of their parameters and structural relationships. Thereby economic processes you have to constantly keep under observation, you need to have a steady stream of new data. Since the observation of economic processes and the processing of empirical data usually take quite a long time, when constructing mathematical models of the economy, it is necessary to correct the initial information, taking into account its delay.

Knowledge of the quantitative relations of economic processes and phenomena is based on economic measurements. The accuracy of measurements largely determines the accuracy of the final results of quantitative analysis through modeling. Therefore, a necessary condition for the effective use of mathematical modeling is the improvement of economic indicators. The use of mathematical modeling has sharpened the problem of measuring and quantitative comparisons of various aspects and phenomena of socio-economic development, the reliability and completeness of the data obtained, and their protection from intentional and technical distortions.

In the course of modeling there is an interaction of "primary" and "secondary" economic meters. Any model of the national economy is based on a certain system of economic indicators (products, resources, elements, etc.). At the same time, one of the important results of national economic modeling is obtaining new (secondary) economic indicators - economically justified prices for products of various industries, estimates of the effectiveness of natural resources of different quality, and indicators of the social utility of products. However, these meters may be influenced by insufficiently substantiated primary meters, which forces the development of a special methodology for adjusting primary meters for business models.

From the point of view of the "interests" of economic modeling, at present the most pressing problems of improving economic indicators are: evaluating the results of intellectual activity (especially in the field of scientific and technical developments, the informatics industry), building general indicators of socio-economic development, measuring feedback effects (influence economic and social mechanisms on production efficiency).

1. Scientific standards and criteria for evaluating economic knowledge.

When determining the assessment of economic knowledge, it is necessary to proceed from the following criteria:

The amount of knowledge that a student has in economic discipline.

Understanding the essence of economic phenomena and processes and their interdependencies,

The ability to see the main economic problems, their causes,

The ability to theoretically substantiate possible ways solutions to existing economic problems.

Criteria for assessing economic knowledge

The criteria for evaluating economic knowledge will be different, depending on which

criteria for assessing economic knowledge for the higher education system, these criteria cannot

be homogeneous. Economic knowledge is a reflection of socially significant social

political problems, so their assessment cannot be one-sided and represent

only exact formulas and calculations.

Like any object of study, the assessment of economic knowledge is characterized not only by

assessment of their content side, but also other forms of their manifestation. Therefore, it is necessary to apply

different criteria for evaluating different forms of manifestation of economic knowledge. Such forms

are: the type of academic work that the student performs (oral answer, written answer,

classroom work, independent homework, scientific activity, production

practice); its rank according to the level of complexity (note taking, independent work, test, control

work, test, exam, term paper and graduation projects, Research Article); organizational status

(intrauniversity, regional, federal).

In practice, the criterion cannot be rigid and unambiguous, since there is

factor of probable change of conditions. In this regard, the development of criteria for assessing economic

knowledge should have a systematic, diverse and multi-level structure that can flexibly

respond to the instability of some estimation parameters.

The fact that the subject of the study (a specific carrier of the subject of assessment) is

person, necessitates taking into account individual psychological characteristics and

accentuations of the character of each individual student in the assessment process (for example, according to such

criterion, such as the speed of response). In this case, both a person and a computer can be evaluating, but

evaluated only a person, and this cannot be ignored.

The considered approaches to the development of criteria for assessing economic knowledge can

contribute to the creation of a sound system of criteria that will improve not only

efficiency, but also the quality of economic education, and will give the whole assessment process

the necessary objectivity that protects students from cases of bias against them

teachers.

1. Interdisciplinary interactions in economics.

The economy defines the sphere of human activity, which combines material production activities and the creation of services. The study of the economy as a special sphere of human life requires an integrated approach and the interaction of different sciences. Therefore, not only the knowledge developed earlier by economic sciences is used, but also obtained by related natural and social sciences, among which such sciences as mathematics, computer science, psychology, political sciences, jurisprudence, engineering sciences, ecology, statistics and demography can be highlighted. Interdisciplinarity makes it possible to transfer ideas and approaches that have been successful in other scientific disciplines to economics, and to more clearly identify those problems that other sciences have not encountered.

Economics-mathematics

Modern economic theory, both at the micro and macro levels, includes mathematical models and methods as a natural, necessary element. The use of mathematics in economics makes it possible, firstly, to identify and formally describe the most important, essential relationships between economic variables and objects: the study of such an important object requires a high degree of abstraction. Secondly, from clearly formulated initial data and relations, deduction methods can be used to obtain conclusions that are adequate to the object under study to the same extent as the assumptions made. Thirdly, the methods of mathematics and statistics make it possible to gain new knowledge about an object in an inductive way: to evaluate the form and parameters of the dependences of its variables that are most consistent with the available observations. Finally, fourthly, the use of the language of mathematics allows us to accurately and compactly state the provisions of economic theory, to formulate its concepts and conclusions.

Economics-informatics

Recently, the interaction of economics and informatics has also begun to play an increasingly important role - modern information and telecommunication technologies significantly change both the ways of producing products and services, and the organization and forms of leisure activities, the realization by a person of his civil rights, methods and forms of upbringing and education. They have a decisive impact on the social structure of society, the economy, politics, and the development of public institutions. There is an intensive process of formation of the global information economy, the transformation of e-commerce into the main means of doing business. A new type of society is emerging, in which information and knowledge become the main resource for further development. Russia, being a part of the world community, persistently introduces the latest infocommunication technologies. Now we can state that the information society for our country is increasingly turning from a dream into reality.

1. Economic theory and system of economic sciences.

Economic theory and other economic sciences must increasingly take into account the results of research in other sciences, at least as certain limitations (social, moral, legal, etc.). In this regard, economic theory, as well as all economic sciences, faces the question of its place in the system of other sciences. Since the center of its research is a person in all the richness of its economic manifestations, it inevitably turns out to be more or less connected with a wide range of sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the humanities and natural knowledge. Economic theory also serves as a general basis for a number of economic sciences, which are divided into specific (economics of industry, agriculture, economics of enterprises, national economy, etc.), functional (finance, credit, etc.), information and analytical (statistics, economic modeling, etc.) and historical (the history of the national economy, the history of economic thought).

1. The structure of modern economic knowledge.

Economic science is conventionally divided into:

microeconomics based on the smallest business unit (individual consumer, firm), as well as the mutual influence between business entities, which is manifested in the prices of goods and services;

macroeconomics study of the country's economy as a whole, its economic patterns for political decision-making. The main attention is paid to the national income of society, employment problems, inflation rates, directions of government revenues and expenditures. Macroeconomic analysis is aimed at achieving full employment, price stability, effective economic growth.

Recently, economists distinguish two more sections of the economy:

mesoeconomics consideration of subsystems national economy or a whole complex of industries, regions, etc.;

mega-economy study of the laws and behavior of the world economy in general.

Macroeconomic and microeconomic processes are so closely interrelated that it is often difficult to separate them. The effectiveness of the proposals and recommendations of economists largely depends on how fully they are taken into account in the analysis of the economy.

Economics is closely related to, and sometimes interacts with, the legal sciences, sociology, economic psychology, labor physiology, etc. Economics is the core of economic policy if this policy seeks to be scientifically sound.

1. Informatization, globalization and development of the "knowledge economy".

The development of information and communication systems at the end of the 20th century led to the globalization of world markets, where new technologies became the main factor in the development of countries. That is, society has moved to the “Knowledge Economy”

The knowledge economy is the highest stage in the development of the post-industrial economy and the innovation economy. Often the term knowledge economy is used as a synonym for innovation economy. However, the knowledge economy is the highest stage in the development of an innovative economy. And it is the base, the foundation of the knowledge society or the information society.

The main factor in the formation and development of the knowledge economy is human capital.

The knowledge economy is an economy where the main factors of development are knowledge and human capital. The development process of such an economy lies in improving the quality of human capital, in improving the quality of life, in the production of high-tech knowledge, innovation and high-quality services.

Today, the production of knowledge and high technology is the main source of economic growth in developed countries Oh.

Knowledge Economy Infrastructure

The infrastructure of the knowledge economy includes the following main components and development drivers:

Efficient state institutions realizing high quality of life.

High quality education.

Effective fundamental science.

Effective scientific and technical venture business.

High-quality human capital in its broadest definition.

Production of knowledge and high technologies.

Information society or knowledge society.

Infrastructure for the implementation and transfer of ideas, inventions and discoveries from fundamental science to innovative industries and further to consumers.

The knowledge economy is characterized by a high index of economic freedom, developed civil society and democracy, and a knowledge society.

Human capital in developed countries has become the main productive factor in creating the latest technologies, developing industries, increasing their efficiency, advancing the development of science, culture, health, security, and the social sphere. It follows from the UN Human Development Reports that the proportion of human capital in such highly developed countries as the USA, Finland, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, etc., is up to 80% of their national wealth.

The leading countries of the world have created close to optimal conditions for the rapid and effective implementation of scientists' ideas into specific goods and products. It is fundamental research, increased investment in human capital and the new breakthrough technologies generated by them that provide the leading countries of the world with their leadership.

By the mid-80s of the XX century, the USSR had exhausted the possibilities of its own industrial development within the framework of the command-administrative system. However, it was not possible to create an efficient industrial economy. Labor productivity in the USSR was several times lower than in developed countries. She has not grown up in Russia to date. The challenges of post-industrialism turned out to be too much for the clumsy socialist economy. This was partly related to the systemic crisis of Soviet society, which provoked the collapse of the socialist system and the USSR.

At present, the efficiency of production and the economy of Russia has remained at the level of the USSR. Russian human capital is also of insufficient quality.

Interdisciplinary synthesis is a combination of theories, methods and methodologies of various disciplines into a single whole in order to obtain new knowledge within one discipline or at the junctions between different disciplines. Interdisciplinary synthesis at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. is one of the most effective ways of obtaining new knowledge, including economic knowledge.

Interdisciplinary synthesis arises on the basis of interdisciplinary interaction. G. Berger gives the following definition of such interaction:

“This (interdisciplinary. - A.O.) interaction can range from the exchange of ideas to the mutual integration of whole concepts, methodologies, procedures, epistemology, terminologies for these organizations of research and educational activities in some very wide scope” 1 .

Economics is involved in such interaction and participates in the processes of interdisciplinary synthesis. It can be done in three main ways.

1. The first method is based on the already mentioned method of "economic imperialism" (see the first chapter of this textbook).

"Economic imperialism"- research method and type of interdisciplinary interaction in the social sciences, in which the main principle of economic science is reproduced: the effective achievement of goals with a shortage of funds; the goals themselves can be different and are formulated by other social sciences: sociology, psychology, political science, etc.

Interdisciplinary interaction between economics and other social sciences along the lines of "economic imperialism" has intensified since the 1970s and 1980s. XX century, and this is probably due to two main reasons: firstly, with the departure of economic science from the rigid canons of neoclassicism and the “second coming” of institutionalism as a direction much more “open” towards union with other social sciences; secondly, with the desire of some social disciplines to become even more “positivized”, to formalize their conceptual apparatus and methodological tools for the natural sciences - mathematics, physics, etc., and also partly for economics in the model of economics.

Gender studies, demography, sociology, history, and political science were especially strongly affected by "economic imperialism". In most cases, this influence should be considered as exclusively positive- both in terms of the impact on the evolution of economic knowledge itself, and in terms of the development of the discipline that is influenced by the economy. For example,

Cit. by: Mirsky E. Interdisciplinary research and disciplinary organization of science. M., 1980. S. 20.

in history, such an impact is associated with the popularity of the methodology of the school of new economic history and cliometry, in political science - with the emergence of the theory of social

choice, etc.

2. The second way can be conditionally designated as "economic vassalage". "Economic vassalage"- this is a method of interdisciplinary interaction between economics and another science (other sciences), when economic research is conducted in accordance with the methodological and theoretical foundations of another science (or other sciences).

"Economic vassalage" is the other side of "economic imperialism". If in the case of the latter, economics acts as an “aggressor” on the territory of a foreign science, dictating its own methods to it, then in the case of “economic vassalage”, another science imposes its own theoretical schemes and methodology on economic science.

Throughout its history, economic science has repeatedly been subjected to "raids" from other social sciences, and, it should be noted, such "raids" in certain periods of the development of economic thought were very successful and had a profound impact on the development of economic theory and methodology. For example, in German economic thought in the second half of the 19th - first third of the 20th century. economic discipline played the role of a "vassal" of historical science, in the Soviet social sciences (from 1917 to 1991) economic science had to play the role of a "vassal" of Marxist-Leninist philosophy and its political counterpart - scientific communism, etc.

In the worst case, it even had to be about the so-called reductionism,- when the subject and (or) methodology of economic science was completely reduced (reduced) to the subject and (or) methodology of another social discipline. It was probably the strongest psychological reductionism late XIX - early XX century, when some researchers, under the influence of marginalism, attempted to completely dissolve the economy in psychology. At the present stage in the research field of economic methodology, there is a very active sociological reductionism, the purpose of which, obviously, is the desire to replace proper economic methods of research economic processes and phenomena sociological methods, in fact, only partially coinciding with economic ones.

3. The third way of interdisciplinary synthesis can be conditionally called the way of "equal cooperation".

"Equal cooperation"- this is a type of interdisciplinary interaction, when economics and other social sciences equally influence the development of any research problems at the "junctions" between them, enriching and deepening both one's own and others' theory and methodology.

The modern interaction between economics and sociology, as well as between economics and psychology, should be considered the most classic here. Despite the individual encroachments of "economic imperialism" and "economic vassalage", these two pairs of sciences still have interdisciplinary interaction in the first place according to the type of "equal cooperation". Economic sociology and economic psychology have made considerable progress in recent years, applying an effective combination in the first case - economic and sociological theory and methodology, and in the second - economic and psychological theory and methodology. The “equal cooperation” of economic and historical sciences, economic science and gender studies, economic science and legal science should also be recognized as quite successful.

Nobel Prizes: Gary Becker (1992) for the theory of "human capital" (economics, sociology, gender studies, jurisprudence), Douglas North (1993) for cliometry and new economic history (economics, history, sociology), Daniel Kahneman and Vernon Smith ( 2002) for the development of experimental economics (economics, psychology) - these are just a few examples where economists have received awards not only for the development of economic knowledge proper, but de facto- and for a successful interdisciplinary synthesis.

The concept and subject of economic theory

Economic theory- a social science that studies the behavior of people in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods in conditions of limited resources in order to satisfy needs.

The subject of economic theory is the interaction of people in the process of finding effective ways to use limited production resources in order to meet the material needs of society.

The following can be distinguished functions economic theory:

- cognitive(knowledge of real economic processes, i.e. disclosure of the laws of economic development);

- methodological(explains how to build economic models, what methods to use);

- applied(used to develop practical economic policy, to create programs, to develop strategic economic forecasts).

Structure of economic theory

Economic theory like science consists of four main parts: microeconomics, macroeconomics, mesoeconomics (industry economics) and metaeconomics (world economy and international economic relations).

Microeconomics- a part of economic science that studies relatively small-scale economic processes occurring or associated with firms, entrepreneurs, households and owners of primary production resources and their economic activities, and also studies the market behavior of subjects, the relationship between them in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption.

Macroeconomics- a part of economic science that studies large-scale economic phenomena and processes related to the country's economy, its economy as a whole. The object of study is the summary generalizing indicators for the entire economy: gross national product (GNP), gross domestic product (GDP), national income, total public and private investment, inflation rate, purchasing power of prices, etc.

Mesoeconomics- a part of economic science that studies economic processes and phenomena occurring in a particular industry, as well as intersectoral economic relations.

Metaeconomics- a part of economic science that studies the world economy and international economic relations and considers issues of world trade and foreign economic activity, exchange rates and regulation, socio-economic potential and development of countries in the context of globalization trends as a result of integration processes.

Considering peculiarities State educational standards of higher professional education in economic specialties and established traditions of teaching the course "Economic theory" as an academic discipline distinguish the following main blocks what? specify Keywords: general economic theory, microeconomics, macroeconomics, transitional (transitive) economy, history of economic doctrines, world economy.

Methods of economic theory

If the subject of economic theory reveals "what" is known, then the method - "how" is known.

Method- a set of techniques and approaches to research. The method cannot be arbitrary, it must correspond to the peculiarities of the subject of the corresponding science.

There are the following methods studies of economic phenomena:

Method of scientific abstraction;

Analysis and synthesis;

Induction and deduction;

Aggregation;

historical method;

Method of economic and mathematical modeling;

Method of economic experiment.

scientific abstraction(abstraction) - simplification of scientific analysis by excluding from it some factors that do not play a decisive role in this analysis and can be omitted in order to obtain a clearer picture to determine the main determining relationships and dependencies.

Induction- the derivation of theoretical provisions and principles from facts, the movement of thought from the particular to the general.

Deduction- the movement of knowledge from theory to facts, from the general to the particular; the assumption (hypothesis) is checked by means of the analysis of the facts.

Aggregation- consolidation of economic indicators by combining them into groups. Aggregate indicators are generalized synthetic measures that combine many private indicators in one general indicator. Aggregation is performed by summing, grouping, multiplying, or in other ways reducing particular indicators to generalized ones.

Analysis- a method of scientific knowledge of phenomena and processes, which is based on the study of the constituent parts, elements of the system under study.

Synthesis- a method of scientific knowledge of phenomena and processes, based on the combination of individual knowledge and information into a single whole.

historical method- the process of investigating events in chronological order.

Method of economic and mathematical modeling- an approach to scientific knowledge based on the study of quantitative indicators through the modeling of economic phenomena.

Model is a simplified representation of reality.

economic experiment– study, research of economic phenomena and processes by their reproduction, modeling in artificial or natural conditions. Distinguish microeconomic and macroeconomic experiment.

Positive Economics- a part of economic theory that studies and explains economic facts, events, processes and establishes a connection between them.

Normative economic theory- a part of economic theory, which not only explains economic phenomena, but is also designed to contribute to the development of economic policy, the necessary course of action.

Economic policy and its goals

Economic policy is a purposeful system of state measures in the field of production, distribution, exchange and consumption in order to strengthen the national economy and meet the needs of the people. The following main objectives of economic policy are distinguished:

1. The economic growth- the desire to provide a higher standard of living.

2. Full employment- it is necessary to employ those who are able and willing to work.

3. Economic efficiency - Ensuring maximum return with a minimum of costs (because production resources are limited).

4. Stable price level- It is necessary to avoid a general decrease in the level of prices (deflation) or their increase (inflation).

5. economic freedom– economic entities should have the scope of freedom of action in their economic activities.

6. Equitable distribution of income– support for the population with incomes below the subsistence level through the redistribution of income.

7. Economic security– providing social guarantees to low-income and socially unprotected segments of the population.

8. Trade balance - a reasonable economic policy in foreign economic activity, an economically justified ratio of imports and exports.

Rational economic behavior

Rational, from an economic point of view, human behavior implies the following: what exactly? specify

1. Maximizing the result (profit) at given costs(with a given cost of production factors, the maximum amount of economic goods should be produced).

2. Minimizing costs to achieve this result(the desired end result is achieved with minimal input of production factors).

3. Economic feasibility and morality do not always coincide(if any action is negatively perceived from a moral point of view, this does not mean at all that it is not economically feasible).

4. Purposeful economic development(the goals of economic development are determined and purposeful economic activity is carried out).

5. Availability of selection criteria(the presence of indicators by which alternatives are compared and a choice is made).

3.1 3 Basic economic concepts.

General problems of economic development

and economic systems

human needs. law of increase

human needs

Maslow recognized that people have many different needs, but believed that these needs can be divided into the following five main categories:

1 Physiological Needs are essential for survival. These include the needs for food, water, shelter, rest, and sexual needs.

2 Needs for security and confidence in the future include the need for protection from physical and psychological dangers from the outside world and the confidence that physiological needs will be met in the future.

3 Social needs - the need to belong to society; a feeling of being accepted, a feeling of social interaction, a feeling of support.

4 Esteem Needs include the need for self-respect, respect for personal achievement, recognition of competence, respect from others, recognition.

5 Needs of self-expression- the need to realize their potential and grow as a person (Figure 3.2).

All these needs can be arranged in a strict hierarchical structure. Thus, two features of the system of human needs can be distinguished:

A person, first of all, tries to satisfy primary needs;

A person moves to the next level of needs only after the needs of this level are satisfied.

Consequently, law of increasing human needs can be formulated like this: when the strongest and priority needs are satisfied, the needs that follow them in the hierarchy arise and require satisfaction.

Free and economic goods. Factors of production

The range of needs of each person and society as a whole is expanding, and the needs themselves are becoming more diverse. The needs of man and society can be called boundless.

In turn, the income received by economic entities, or the resources available to society limited. Any society, regardless of the level of socio-economic development, has limited benefits at its disposal, i.e. goods that satisfy people's needs.

If we consider in a single system infinity of needs and limited resources necessary to satisfy them, then economic entities face problem of choice. The need for choice is due to the inability to satisfy all existing needs due to limited income or other resources of economic entities.

All kinds of limited goods are called economic.

The resources that people use to produce economic goods are called production factors.

Traditionally, it is customary to distinguish four factors of production: natural, capital, labor force (labor) and entrepreneurial ability.

Natural resources will include all "free natural goods" that are used in the production of goods and services. These include: land and allotments, forests, water resources, reserves of minerals and minerals. The income from the use of this factor of production is rent.

Capital resources (physical capital, capital) include those means of production created by people specifically for further participation in the production process, which are directly ready for industrial use. An example is raw materials and materials, machine tools and equipment, transport and communications, buildings and structures, and more. The income from the use of this factor of production is percent.

Labor force (labor) is a set of physical and mental abilities that people use in the process of creating economic benefits. The income from the use of this factor of production is wage.

Entrepreneurial ability (entrepreneurship) - a special human resource, which implies a willingness to take risks, certain managerial and organizational skills required in the production of goods and services. Entrepreneurship is a consolidating factor that brings together other productive resources. The income from the use of this factor of production is entrepreneurial profit.

Opportunity cost

The choice in favor of any economic good in conditions of limitedness implies the rejection of another economic good.

If an economic entity makes a choice from three or more alternatives, although only any one good can really acquire, then the opportunity cost of his choice will be the best of the rejected alternatives.

Opportunity cost is the cost of the good that is the best of the alternatives rejected in the choice.

Production Possibility Curve.

Law of Increasing Opportunity Costs

The problem of choice and opportunity cost is important for determining the production possibility frontier of an economy of such subjects as a firm or a national economy.

Production Possibility Curve (CPV) or Production Possibility Frontier- a graph illustrating the possibilities of simultaneous production of two products (groups of products) in the short term at a constant level of technology with full use of a constant amount of limited resources.

An example of a CPV is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 - Production Possibility Curve

According to the alternative BUT all production possibilities are used for the production of commodities, and in the alternative D all available resources are consumed for the production of means of production. From a practical point of view, both of these alternatives ( BUT and D) are unrealistic, since society, as a rule, finds a balance in the production of these groups of goods.

As we move from the alternative BUT to the alternative D, the production of means of production increases by reducing the production of consumer goods and, accordingly, vice versa.

Dot E(2; 6) is below the production possibility frontier, therefore, at this point, production is possible, but the resources are not fully used, therefore, the economy functions inefficiently. At the point E'(3; 5) production is impossible, since the point is located above the CPV, i.e. there are not enough resources to produce so many means of production and commodities.

CPV is concave relative to the origin of the coordinate system. This is due to the action law of increasing opportunity cost, which says that in the short term with an increase in the output of this type of product, opportunity costs, expressed in the amount of an alternative product, increase per unit of incremental good.

The main reason for the increase in opportunity costs is incomplete interchangeability resources used, because economic resources unsuitable for their full use in the production of alternative products.

The economic growth. Types economic growth

The economic growth- increasing the potential production capabilities of society by increasing the amount of resources used and / or by improving equipment and technology.

There are two types of economic growth: extensive and intensive.

Extensive type economic growth occurs due to an increase in the amount of consumed resources with their quality and technology of production use unchanged.

Intensive type economic growth is due to the improvement of the quality of industrial use of resources through the improvement of machinery and technology.

Economic growth leads to a shift in the CPV.

If additional resources and new technologies are introduced simultaneously and approximately equally in all branches of production, means of production and commodities, then the production possibility frontier will shift from the position checkpoint 1 into position checkpoint 2(Figure 3.4a). If innovations are carried out mainly in industries that produce means of production, there will be a “one-sided” expansion of the area of ​​production possibilities in the production of means of production (Figure 3.4b).

Fundamental questions of economics

In all cases, without exception, the limited factors of production and economic benefits pose three fundamental problems for society: what and How many should be produced? How should be produced? For whom produce?

What and how much should be produced? Due to the fact that it is impossible to produce everything that would fully satisfy the needs of society and individuals, the question arises: the release of which products should be a priority?

In answering this question, it is necessary not only to determine which goods and services should be produced, but also when and in what quantity they should be created.

How to produce? Products on modern market must have a certain set of consumer properties (design, style, quality, durability, ease of use, etc.). The development of scientific and technological progress and the changing needs and demands of consumers impose their own requirements on the organization and technology of production.

For whom to produce? This fundamental problem is the other side of the “what to produce?” problem. Solving the problem "for whom to produce?" comes down to answering the following questions: who will buy the produced goods and pay for services, what is now needed in the market, what is the state ready to purchase?

The concept of ownership and the main forms of ownership

Own- belonging of things, material and spiritual values ​​to certain persons, the legal right to such belonging and economic relations between people regarding ownership, division, redistribution of property objects.

Property (as a legal category)- this is a subjective interpretation of relations of appropriation that have developed independently of the will and consciousness of people. The right of ownership is expressed by a person's attitude to a thing as to his own or someone else's, and on what conditions he can use and dispose of it.

The most important steps in the study of property were made in the 19th century. The ideologist of petty-bourgeois socialism P.-J. Proudhon (1809-1865) owns the phrase: "Property is theft." If one person owns a thing, then another person is deprived of the opportunity to own it, i.e. not nature, but social relations underlie property.

For a more correct and complete idea of ​​property, it is necessary to determine its place in the system of social relations:

Property is the foundation of the entire system of social relations;

The position of certain groups, classes and strata of the population depends on approaches to the distribution of property;

Forms of property, as a result of historical development, change depending on the change in the modes of production;

The interweaving and interaction of all forms of ownership has a positive impact on the entire course of the development of society;

The transition from one form of ownership to another can occur in evolutionary and revolutionary ways.

In the Russian Federation, there are the following forms of ownership:

State (including federal and subjects of the Federation);

Municipal;

Public associations (organizations);

Private (individual and collective);

Other (including mixed ownership).

Socio-economic systems

Socio-economic system- a historically established or established set of principles, rules, legislatively fixed norms in the country that determine the form and content of the main economic relations that arise in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods; a way of organizing society to solve fundamental economic questions: what? as? and for whom to produce?

Market economy (pure capitalism) developed in the 18th century. and actually ceased to exist at the end of the 19th century. - the beginning of the XX century. as a result of evolutionary and revolutionary transformations, having transformed into a mixed economy and an administrative-command system, respectively.

The salient features of this system were:

Private ownership of investment resources;

A market mechanism for regulating macroeconomic activities based on free competition and free pricing;

The presence of many independent buyers and sellers.

One of the prerequisites of pure capitalism is the complete freedom of all economic subjects. The solution of the fundamental problems of the economy is carried out through free prices and the market. Fluctuations in prices for certain goods or services are an indicator of social needs. The market system has the greatest flexibility in terms of adapting to changes in market conditions.

Mixed economy (modern capitalism) began to develop in a number of developed capitalist countries at the end of the 19th century. - the beginning of the XX century.

Prerequisites for transformation market economy in a mixed form of economy were:

Scientific and technological revolution;

Intensive development of industrial and social infrastructure;

Activation of the role of the state in the national economy.

In a mixed economy, the economic mechanism is undergoing significant changes due to the strengthening state regulation at the macro level: planned management methods are further developed within individual firms (planning and financial department, marketing department, etc.). State sectoral and national programs of social and economic development are being developed and implemented. The tasks of using resources are solved on the basis of strategic planning.

In economically underdeveloped countries, there traditional economic system based on backward technologies, the widespread use of manual labor, the multistructural nature of the economy and the socio-economic stratification of the population.

In countries with a traditional economic system, natural-communal forms of management are preserved, small-scale production is developing (based on private property and personal labor of the business owner).

In the context of the underdevelopment of national entrepreneurship, the share of foreign capital in the economy is large. In public life, restraining socio-economic progress, centuries-old traditions and customs, religious and cultural values, caste and estate division prevail.

Administrative-command (centralized) system dominated the USSR, the Warsaw Pact countries and some Asian countries.

characteristic features administrative-command system are:

State ownership of all economic resources;

Monopolization and bureaucratization of the economy;

Centralized economic planning as the basis of management.

Feature of the economic mechanism this system is as follows:

Management of all enterprises and organizations is carried out from a single center, which deprives local authorities of their independence;

The state completely controls the production and distribution of products, thereby excluding free market relationships;

The state apparatus mainly uses administrative and administrative methods of management.

However, it is impossible to speak about the administrative-command economy only as a defective phenomenon.

Let us consider the most pronounced features of country economic models.

American model:

Small share of state property and minimal regulatory role of the state in the economy;

World Entrepreneurship Encouragement;

Sharp differentiation of incomes of the population;

Acceptable standard of living for low-income groups of the population.

Japanese model:

High level of state influence on the main directions of the economy;

Drawing up plans for the development of the economy;

Slight difference in the level of wages between the head of the firm and the employee;

The social orientation of the model.

German model:

High level of government impact on the economy;

Forecasting of the main macroeconomic indicators;

The difference in the level of wages between the head of the firm and the employee is not significant.

Swedish model:

Social orientation, reduction of property inequality, care for the low-income segments of the population;

The state actively intervenes in the pricing process by setting fixed prices;

High proportion of the public sector.

Chinese model:

The transition from the model of "centralized planned economy" to the model of "socialist planned commodity economy" was carried out;

Combination of market relations with state planning;

In agriculture, a transition has been made from "people's communes" to a system of "family contracts";

Revival of the economic activity of public sector enterprises by separating the right of ownership from the right of management;

Establishment of direct economic relations between enterprises;

Creation of a system of markets ( stock markets, markets for services, information, engineering and technology).

Foreword

In the context of the development of new forms of management, there is a need to acquire and constantly update economic knowledge, which requires studying the foundations of economic theory.

The textbook presents a systematic course of economic theory, which examines economic categories, patterns and processes at the level of micro- and macroeconomics, as well as international economic relations. When writing the textbook, the authors used the scientific achievements of well-known representatives of various economic areas, the experience of teaching this academic discipline in the law academy and published educational literature, the textbook presents the features of development transition economy Ukraine. At the same time, issues of legal regulation of new economic phenomena and processes in the conditions of the formation of market relations, as well as the emergence of negative phenomena - crisis, inflation, a sharp decrease in public demand, criminalization and aggravation of threats to the economic security of the state, occupy an important place.

Under these conditions, the population has a need for a certain independent interpretation of ways to improve their economic life, reform the country's economy. Everyone is ready to give recipes for the treatment of old and the formation of new economic and legal relations. But it should be remembered that this requires a scientific substantiation of models and trends of economic development. This can only be done at a professional level, relying on the scientific knowledge of economic theory as a science and academic discipline. This edition will allow the reader to understand the basic concepts and patterns of building a new economic system in Ukraine - a socially oriented market economy. At the same time, the authors of the course on the fundamentals of economic theory have compiled such a structure that will make it possible to clarify the relationship between economics and law, theory and practice of economic development.

INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMIC THEORY

Economic theory as a science and academic discipline

The subject of the course "Fundamentals of Economic Theory"

Economic theory- a multifaceted social theoretical science, which consistently throughout its existence has acquired an integral system of scientific views and ideas about the economic life of society, the laws of development of the national economy, its subjects in the conditions of market relations. Economic theory, like all sciences, has its own object of study and subject of study, which in the process of developing the economic activity of man and society constantly acquire new characteristics and features. A person acts as an active participant and subject of the economic life of society, a producer of material goods that are necessary to meet his needs and interests. Subsequently, new needs arise, which can only be met by organizing effective activities within the family, team, firm, enterprise, industry, region, country or the whole world. Therefore, economic theory is a complex subject, constantly formed and developed.

There are many definitions of economics and its subject: economics (4th-3rd centuries BC) are economic views on the art of housekeeping; political economy (XVII-XX centuries) - a science that studies the economic relations that arise between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption; economics (XIX-XX centuries) - the science of the efficient use of limited resources in order to achieve the maximum satisfaction of the material needs of man and society. The modern understanding of the term "economic science" includes the definition of such elements of ITS subject: economic activity; patterns of development of economic systems; relations arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods; property and market relations; the use by people of rare or limited resources for the production of various goods and services and their distribution among members of society in order to meet their needs; mechanisms for solving the main economic problems (what, how, for whom, how much to produce and the ability of the economic system to reform), etc. The definition of these elements of the subject of economic theory are interconnected, complement each other and reflect various aspects and problems of economic life.

The subject of economic theory, depending on the level of study of economic phenomena and the scale of the functioning of the economy, has a complex multi-tiered structure (Fig. 1).

The object of study of economic theory at the level of microeconomics is a separate economic entity - the economic activity of a person, family, firm, enterprise, which is specific and accessible to perception.

The national economy as a whole. its subject has a complex, generalized, aggregated character, requires deep scientific research and state regulation.

The economy must branches of the national economy, intermediate systems and complexes (military-industrial, agro-industrial, energy, etc.) that make up the meso-economy.

Economic theory studies economic phenomena and processes also at the level of the international economy as a system of the world economy, international economic relations and ties, that is, supermacroeconomics.

All these levels of economics are components of economic theory, are interconnected, complement each other and contribute to the study of its subject.

Economic theory, depending on the scope of application, is divided into positive and normative. A positive economic theory cognizes and predicts objective economic phenomena, forms complete system scientific views, hypotheses and concepts. Economic theory as academic discipline generally positive. The scientist-economist, investigating the facts of economic life, ascertains the state of the economy, formulates the characteristic features, explains their nature and content, draws conclusions about the future of its development.

Normative economic theory is the science of the rational behavior of people and the activity of economic institutions. It is designed to answer the question of what should be done, what should be, how to act in order to achieve the desired end results, one must have.

Economic theory as a theoretical science and academic discipline contains positive conclusions and generalizations, but management practice, especially at the level of macroeconomics, requires specific recommendations, regulatory guidelines on how to reduce the state budget deficit, inflation, how to overcome the crisis, etc.

Both of these areas of application of economic theory should work effectively and contribute to the study of its subject and the formation of economic thinking and market economic behavior in a person.

Economic thinking in a person is formed in the course of his activity as a subject of economic life and the acquisition of knowledge about economic concepts, phenomena and laws. Economic thinking is the process of reflecting, reproducing the consciousness of people, their economic relations in the form of ideas, concepts, theories or assimilation by people of economic knowledge acquired by society, processing of information. Therefore, there are two types of economic thinking: conventional and scientific.

Ordinary economic thinking- this is the thinking of a person at the level of his life experience, the practice of production and consumption of goods. As a rule, it has a subjective, superficial, one-sided character and may be accompanied by low performance. This kind of thinking is especially unacceptable for macroeconomic leaders.

Scientific economic thinking- this is the thinking of a person who has mastered the knowledge acquired by society and economic science and their implementation at a professional level using a conceptual, categorical apparatus. A person who has scientific thinking knows all the links in the development of the economy, objectively assesses economic reality and consciously uses the system of scientific economic categories, concepts and laws.

Economic thinking enables the subjects of the economy to more consciously realize their abilities, value orientations, and effective economic behavior.

Economic Behavior- these are certain actions of the subject of the economy, his actions in relation to the environment, a reaction to specific goals, values ​​and tasks. The economic behavior of subjects of a market economy should be guided by the principles of limited (rare) resources, unlimited needs, alternativeness and freedom of economic choice, open to economic science.

The development of the economy requires resources (material, human, natural, investment), which tend to be limited, firstly, by the nature or territory of the country; secondly, the impossibility of their reproduction; thirdly, the growth of the population, the production of goods and services, the unlimited increase in the diversity, quantity and levels of needs. The limited resources, the constant need for them for the production of material goods and services necessitate the choice of ways for the rational, efficient use of these resources, that is, the achievement of efficiency. Economic efficiency as a goal of activity requires taking into account the relationship between the amount of scarce resources needed for production (expenses) and the results obtained (output). The efficiency of economic activity takes place when costs decrease or remain unchanged with an increase in the volume of output of the necessary material goods. So, a characteristic feature of the economic behavior of all subjects of economic life is their activity in the efficient use of scarce resources to meet needs.

The limited resources are acutely felt by the individual and society, because economic needs are constantly growing. Economic theory studies the needs that are the driving motive of human activity to eliminate needs for something. The concept of need means a special psychological state of a person, awareness of the conditions necessary for life. In order to live, people must produce material goods, exchange them and satisfy not only their physiological needs (for food, clothing, housing, recreation, etc.), but also the needs due to their position in a given social environment (in education, culture , sports, etc.).

Needs are classified into certain types depending on the criteria:

By subject - individual, group, collective, public;

According to the object - material, spiritual, cultural and the like;

By field of activity - in work, rest, etc .;

According to the degree of implementation: absolute (due to the current level of development of the world economy), real (which correspond to the level of development of the economy of a given country), solvent (which a person can satisfy in accordance with his own income and price level)

In terms of importance - primary (physiological, needs for safety and security) and secondary (intellectual, social).

Economic Needs- this is a part of human needs, the satisfaction of which requires the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services. The existence of a person is closely connected with the satisfaction of all needs, but primarily primary, material ones (in food, water, air, etc.). The economy of developed countries creates economic potential, which makes it possible to satisfy the needs of the highest level (intellectual), which are unlimited.

The unlimitedness of economic needs means that they cannot be fully satisfied, they have the ability to increase and reproduce. Needs are closely related to the economic interest that arises when the satisfaction of a need is recognized as a specific goal. Economic interests turn out to be in the goals and actions aimed at satisfying needs.

A person (company, state) cannot have everything he wants, he has to choose from existing opportunities and make decisions about spending scarce resources to meet a certain need. For example, an economy cannot increase the production of one particular good unless it gives up another. Therefore, the development of the economy is associated with the choice of the rational use of scarce resources and the satisfaction of needs.

Alternative- this is the choice of one solution (option) from two possible, excluding each other. The alternative choice in the economy must be accompanied by production efficiency and an increase in the level of satisfaction of needs. For example, the development of the economy can be ensured by producing from metal, as a limited resource, guns or machine tools. If you produce tools, there will be enough metal to produce machine tools. Therefore, the government must make the right alternative choice between these industries. Optimal choice will increase benefits and reduce costs.

The alternative choice is accompanied by alternative costs associated with the loss of production of those goods that could be produced from the resources used.