The reason for the uneven distribution of temperature over the earth's surface. Uneven distribution. The angle of inclination of the earth's axis is

Income distribution is one of the most important problems of state social policy. The first stages of the formation of market relations in Russia are characterized by excessive unevenness in the level of income of the population. Not only the well-being of the population, but also the political stability of society depends on the degree of income inequality. Therefore, the state plays a great role in ensuring social protection of the population, sound policies to reduce income differentiation, and fight poverty.

The market distribution of income assumes that the income of each owner of a factor of production corresponds to the marginal product obtained from this factor, thus, in this case, significant inequality in the distribution of income is acceptable.

When generating income, conditions of inequality in their distribution between families and population groups remain. This is due to the fact that the population generates its income mainly from three main sources: wage, income from property, income in the form of social benefits.

Differences in income per capita or per employee are called income differentiation. Income inequality affects everyone economic systems. The largest income gap was observed in the traditional system. This gap was greater than in the era of free competition capitalism. Then, when moving to modern market economy differences in income (and wealth) levels are noticeably reduced. During the transition from an administrative-command to a market system, the growth of income differentiation is associated with the fact that part of the population continues to live in the conditions of the disintegrating previous system and at the same time a social stratum emerges that operates according to the laws of a market economy. As more and more sections of the population become involved in market relations, the extent of inequality is reduced.

By invading the sphere of income distribution, the state should under no circumstances seek to equalize them. Income inequality is a prerequisite for effective functioning market system, only it can create effective motives for work and investment.

There are many phenomena that affect income levels. According to influential modern American economists, belonging to the institutional school, R. Heilbroner and L. Thurow, “people are poor for the most part not because they are unproductive. They often become unproductive as a result of the same factors that make them poor.” Therefore, much attention is paid to the causes of income inequality:

Differences in physical, mental and entrepreneurial abilities. People's abilities are infinitely varied, so some people with naturally good abilities have higher productivity and earn higher incomes than those who are deprived of these abilities. Some human abilities are unique and therefore limited, which brings intellectual rent to their owners, just as the limited inelastic supply of first-class plots of land brings rental income to land owners.

Differences in the profitability of professional activities. Professional activity is determined by the relationship between supply and demand for certain professional services and the costs of obtaining education. Based on this, we can say that the high incomes of top managers, lawyers, programmers are determined by the limited inelastic supply of their services due to the special psychological and mental data that are required to master these professions, as well as the high costs of time, energy and Money for education, and high demand for their services, on which the profitability of modern business directly depends.

Differences in productivity and labor intensity. Inequality in labor productivity, which causes income inequality, can be considered socially fair if workers with exactly the same physical and mental abilities compete in the market. But as noted earlier, people's abilities are infinitely varied. It is also obvious that people who expend more physical and mental energy to perform work have a greater opportunity to earn higher incomes than those who work relaxed. However, there is no direct relationship between labor intensity and its profitability.

The problem of economic opportunity. There is unequal access to education, vocational training, well-paid jobs, and other public and private goods, which creates unequal starting economic conditions for everyone. Therefore, even in a highly developed market economy, the chances of obtaining an education are distributed in such a way that some young people are forced to abandon certain professions or combine study and work, which directly affects the level of qualifications, employment prospects and income generation.

However, despite the significant influence of the above factors on income inequality, it is still generally accepted that “the largest differences in income are due to differences in inherited and acquired wealth.” The uneven distribution of national wealth between the owners of capital and the owners of labor leads to the fact that the more property individuals have, the greater the share of national income they appropriate.

· Differences in socio-economic conditions in regions.

· Differences in attitudes towards risk. Enterprises with an increased risk to human life have higher incomes.

· Discrimination in labor relations.

· Informal relationships, etc.

Income differentiation leads to property differentiation, to different consumer starts.

Absolute poverty line- this is the minimum standard of living, determined on the basis of human physiological needs for food, clothing and housing, i.e. based on a set (basket) of goods and services sufficient to satisfy basic human needs.

Relative poverty line determined by social and cultural conditions, and compared with the standard of living in different countries.

The following reasons for income inequality are identified:

1) Differences in abilities. All people have different intellectual and physical abilities. That is, innate talents enable some individuals to make a contribution to the total product - a contribution that brings very high incomes, while others find themselves in much less favorable conditions.

2) Education and training. People differ significantly from each other in terms of their level of education and professional training, and, consequently, in their ability to earn income. In part, these differences are the result of their free choice.

3) Discrimination. A simple analysis of supply and demand shows how discrimination—in this case, hiring discrimination—is an additional source of income inequality. Suppose that women's access to professions such as secretary or teacher, which were considered strictly “female,” is limited. This means that the supply of female labor relative to the demand for these few occupations will be so large that wages and incomes will be low.

4) Professional tastes and risk. People who are willing to do grueling, unpleasant work and work very intensely for long hours will earn more. Some increase their income by “part-time work.” People also differ from each other in their willingness to take risks (entrepreneurial squeak).

5) Distribution of wealth. Wealth implies the presence of some reserve, that is, real material and financial assets that a person has accumulated over a certain period of time.

6) Market dominance. The ability to “artificially inflate prices in the market” to one's advantage is, of course, a major factor determining income inequality. Some unions resort to measures that limit the supply of productive services provided and thereby increase the income of their members.

7) Luck, connections and accidents.

CONCLUSION

Income, being one of the characteristics of the standard of living of the population, reflects the state and efficiency of the economy of any country and is an indicator of the economic and social well-being of society.

Income level is the most important indicator, as it determines the possibilities of an individual’s material and spiritual life: rest, education, maintaining health, satisfying basic needs.

In conclusion of the study, it should be noted that the goal course work, in a theoretical study of the population's income, the principles of their distribution in a market economy, as well as an analysis of the population's income was achieved. Thanks to this goal, it was possible to:

ü Study concepts such as population income, functional and vertical distribution of income;

ü Consider the basic principles of income distribution in a market economy and society;

ü Explore the Lorenz curve and evaluate its effectiveness

ü Conduct an analysis of the income of the population of the Chelyabinsk region for 2013-2015;

ü Conduct an analysis of wages of the population of the Chelyabinsk region for 2013-2015;

ü Reveal trends state program increasing the level of income of the population;

ü Identify problems of inequality in the distribution of income of the population, and indicate their causes

It is worth paying close attention to the fact that there cannot be equality in the distribution of income in a market economy, since people differ in their hard work, activity, abilities, education, property ownership, and ability to spend income productively. This means they cannot work, earn and live the same way. Everyone gets exactly what they deserve.

That is why one of the most difficult problems associated with income is the problem of its equitable distribution.

For our country, this issue arose very acutely in connection with the restructuring of the economic structure and the transition to market relations after the collapse of the USSR, where people were in more or less equal conditions.

The emergence of market relations in Russia was accompanied by a rapid increase in inequality in income distribution and an increase in a number of negative phenomena in the country’s society and economy.

Currently, the strategic directions of Russia's development require a significant increase in the effectiveness of social policy. Therefore, based on the above material, it is worth putting forward the following recommendations:

· create conditions for further growth of citizens’ well-being,

· increase the income level of various population groups,

· reduce the gap between wealth and poverty,

· increase the growth of wages for public sector workers,

· make the minimum wage equal to the subsistence level.

The results and practical recommendations obtained during the study, subsequently brought to the level of specific techniques, will contribute to the development of a reasonable and effective public policy in the field of formation and redistribution of income of the population. The main provisions of the work can be used in teaching the general course “Microeconomics”.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

1 Arkhipov, A.I. Economics: textbook / A.I. Arkhipov, A.K. Bolshakov. – M.: Prospekt, 2013. – 848 p.

2 Tarasevich, L.S. Microeconomics: textbook for bachelors / L.S. Tarasevich, P.I. Grebennikov, A.I. Leussky. – 7th ed., revised. and additional – M.: Yurayt, 2016. – 543 p.

3 Ivasenko, A.G. Microeconomics: tutorial/ A.G. Ivasenko, Ya.I. Nikonova. – M.: KNORUS, 2013. – 280 p.

4 Simkina, L.G. Microeconomics: textbook / L.G. Simkina. – 2nd ed. – M.: KNORUS, 2013. – 360 p.

5 Nosova, S.S. Microeconomics: textbook / S.S. Nosova. – M.: KNORUS. – 2013. – 472 p.

6 Makhovikova, G.A. Microeconomics: textbook and workshop for applied bachelor's degree / G.A. Makhovikova. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Yurayt, 2015. – 281 p.

7 Rodina, G.A. Microeconomics: textbook for bachelors / G.A. Homeland. – M.: Yurayt, 2015. – 263 p.

8 Nureyev, R.M. Microeconomics course: textbook / R.M. Nureyev. – Infra-M, Norma. – 624 p.

Introduction

1. Income differentiation

1.1 Concepts and factors of differentiation of income of the population

1.2 Interregional differentiation of population incomes

1.3 Causes of income inequality.

1.4. Attempts by the state to smooth out income inequality among the population.

1.5. Intersectoral differentiation of population incomes.

2. Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient

2.1 Principles of construction and basic properties of the Lorenz curve

2.2 Gini coefficient

Conclusion

Bibliography

Applications

Introduction

The standard of living is one of the most important social categories. The standard of living refers to the provision of the population with necessary material goods and services, the achieved level of their consumption and the degree of satisfaction of reasonable needs. In a broad sense, the concept of “standard of living of the population” also includes living conditions, work and employment, life and leisure, health, education, and natural habitat.

Currently, such comparisons are relevant. Comparison of the standard of living in a spatial context is important because it allows us to assess the impact of ongoing socio-economic transformations on the life of the population. Comparison between individual sectors of activity is necessary to take into account differences in the level and living conditions of the population.

1. Income differentiation

1.1 Concepts and factors of differentiation of income of the population

Income differentiation is one of the most important socio-economic indicators, characterizing the degree of uneven distribution of material and spiritual benefits between members of society. The quantities or shares in which the social product is distributed among population groups, and the principle of distribution itself, are determined by the prevailing relations of production.

Over the past fifteen years of social and economic reforms The majority of Russian residents were able to verify from personal experience that William Churchill was right when he said that socialism is an equal distribution of poverty, and capitalism is an uneven distribution of wealth. But if Russian society is forced to come to terms with the fact of the rapid uneven distribution of national property as a result of privatization, then the increasing inequality in labor income every year causes increasing dissatisfaction and concern of the authorities. According to Rosstat data for the first quarter of 2009, the richest 10% of Russian citizens account for 30% of all income (in Moscow this share is even higher), and the poorest 10% account for only 2%. Thus, in 2009, the rich become 15 times richer than the poor. In 2001, the difference between the incomes of these two groups was tenfold. Similar processes are taking place at the microeconomic level: according to estimates recently released by the State Duma Committee on Labor and Social Policy, the salary of the head of a private Russian company exceeds the salary of an ordinary employee by 20-30 times; independent experts believe that the difference in income may be much higher.

The main factor determining the high level of poverty in Russia is the low level of wages, which does not ensure the implementation of the reproductive and stimulating functions of wages. Today, even the average wage does not provide normal conditions for the reproduction of workers and members of their families and rather plays the role of a social benefit. The low wages of the majority of employees are combined with economically and socially unjustified differentiation in the remuneration of top managers. The differences between the minimum and maximum wages are 10-15 times within an enterprise, 20-40 times within an industry and 20-45 times between regions.

1.2 Interregional differentiation of population incomes

Interregional differentiation in wages exists in all countries. Remuneration cannot be the same for all regions of the country, since regional labor markets place demand for workers of different qualifications and at the same time value the work of workers of similar professional and qualification groups differently. Moreover, in a competitive economy, compensating differences in wages are generated in the labor market. According to the theory of compensating differences, workers should be compensated in terms of wages for employment in regions with relatively worse living conditions and a higher cost of living.

The gap between rich and poor Russians is widening against the general background of economic growth, accompanied by accelerated growth in household incomes. The main share of the increase in average income falls on the group of the wealthiest citizens of Russia, while the real incomes of the poor and their standard of living may decline.

One of the sources of social tension in any country is the difference in the levels of well-being of citizens and the level of their wealth. The level of wealth is determined by two factors:

1) the amount of property of all types owned by individual citizens;

2) the amount of current income of citizens.

People receive income as a result of either creating their own business (becoming entrepreneurs) or providing their own factors of production (their labor, capital or land) for the use of other people or firms. And they use this property to produce the goods people need. This mechanism of income generation initially contains the possibility of income inequality.

Income and wealth inequality can reach enormous proportions and then pose a threat to the political and economic stability of the country. Therefore, almost everything the developed countries the world is constantly implementing measures to reduce such inequalities.

1.3 Causes of income inequality.

The causes of income inequality are:

1. Hereditary reasons, for example, the provision of resources, abilities and the presence of talent.

2. Human capital in the form of professional qualities, experience in any activity, level of education. These factors are not innate, but are acquired by the individual in the course of his life.

3. Labor efforts of workers, their interest in work.

4. Presence or absence of market discrimination.

5. Luck and other factors influencing decisions made by an economic entity and determining the result of its activities.

6. different values ​​of factors of production owned by people (capital in the form of a computer, in principle, can bring more income than in the form of a shovel);

7. different success in the use of factors of production (for example, an employee in a company producing a scarce product may receive higher earnings than his colleague of the same qualifications working in a company whose goods are sold with difficulty);

8. different amounts of factors of production owned by people (the owner of two oil wells receives, all other things being equal, more income than the owner of one well).

In addition, the distribution of income is greatly influenced by the structural features of the economy: the state of industries, the market situation, the degree of monopoly, the development of international relations, as well as the structure of exports and imports.

The rise in income inequality typical of economies as a whole is also taking place in private companies. But if in old Europe the incomes of top management companies exceed the salaries of their employees by no more than 30 times, then in the USA the top manager of a private company earns 200-300 times more than his employees. In Russia, earnings of top managers of large companies and investment banks are also growing at a faster pace. The average annual salary of the general director of a large Russian company is, according to various estimates, from $0.5 to $2.5 million. Calculations by specialists, including data on official and “shadow” salaries (the share of which, according to the Ministry of Economic Development, until recently was about 40%), show that the incomes of management and employees of Russian companies can vary by 100-500 times.

1.4. Attempts by the state to smooth out income inequality among the population.

In Russian debates about labor income inequality, the “to blame” usually turns out to be the state, which denies full-fledged social protection, both working citizens and various categories of people in need. The emergence of a new class of “working poor” Russians is explained by the fact that their wages are significantly less than the real cost of reproduction of the labor force. The undervaluation of Russian labor turns out to be quite significant, even taking into account the traditionally low labor productivity: according to some calculations, the average Russian worker produces 3 times more goods per dollar of salary than a European or American. At the same time, according to the World Bank, the government (through the mechanism minimum size wages) guarantees workers a salary equivalent to only 11% of gross national income (in states with developed standards of social protection of citizens, the ratio of the annual minimum wage to GNP per capita is at least 30%). Not only employers, who make a profit from the difference between the low cost of labor and the market price of its result, are interested in maintaining this situation, but also officials, who receive “administrative rent” from this profit. In Russia, unlike countries with developed social security mechanisms, the bulk of the poor are those who are under the care of the state - primarily, workers in a number of categories of the public sector and pensioners. At the same time, as stated in a recent World Bank report, in Russia there are no effective mechanisms for distributing social assistance that would raise the level of income of the poorest, and a significant share of allocated funds is channeled through social programs, goes not to the poor, but even to rich Russians (10% of subsidies go to citizens belonging to the 20% richest Russians). The main reason is the impossibility of targeted social assistance in conditions where the shadow economy accounts for 44% of GDP.

The state policy of income is to redistribute it through the state budget through differentiated taxation of different groups of recipients of income and social benefits. At the same time, a significant share of national income is transferred from high-income strata of the population to low-income strata. Nowadays, all developed countries of the world have created systems of social support for the poor.

Social transfers are a system of cash or in-kind payments to the population that are not related to their participation in economic activity currently or in the past. The purpose of social transfers is to humanize relations in society, prevent the growth of crime, and also maintain domestic demand.

The state, organizing the redistribution of income through the budget, solves the problem of increasing the incomes of the poor, creates conditions for the normal reproduction of the labor force, helps to ease social tension, etc. The degree of influence of the state on the process of income redistribution can be measured by the volume and dynamics of expenditures for social purposes at the expense of the central and local budgets, as well as the amount of income taxation.

Object of study: income distribution.

Problems of living standards and stratification of society by income at the present stage of development of the Russian economy are quite acute. The difference in income is negative and predetermines the existence of socio-economic inequality.

One of the sources of social tension in any country is the difference in the levels of well-being of citizens and the level of their wealth. In Japan, the gap between the poorest group of families and the rich is 4.3 times, in the USA - 8.7 times, in Mexico - 14 times, in Russia - more than 30 times. The leading place in the income structure is occupied by wages, the share of which fluctuates between 59-90%. The low share of wages in the income structure is evidence of the devaluation of labor. In this case, wages do not fulfill their main function - stimulating labor, but turn into a means social insurance from poverty. In Russia, the absolute poverty line coincides with the subsistence minimum. Low wages are the main factor determining the high level of poverty in Russia. Size living wage of the Russian Federation for the quarter of 2016 was established by Resolution No. 1275 of December 1, 2016 and is: per capita - 9889 rubles per month. Today, even the average wage does not provide normal conditions for the reproduction of workers and members of their families and rather plays the role of a social benefit. The low wages of the majority of employees are combined with economically and socially unjustified differentiation in the remuneration of top managers.

The reasons for income inequality can be identified: objective reasons - reflect the general utility of occupations, territory, differentiation of wages, level of education, inequality of property ownership. Subjective reasons are associated with the character of the individual. The distribution of income is greatly influenced by the structural features of the economy: the state of industries, the market situation, the degree of monopoly, the development of international relations, as well as the structure of exports and imports. The rise in income inequality characteristic of the economy as a whole is also taking place in private companies. In Russia, earnings of top managers of large companies and investment banks are growing at a faster pace. The differences between the minimum and maximum pay are 10-15 times within an enterprise, 20-40 times within an industry and 20-45 times between regions. The average annual salary of the general director of a large Russian company is, according to various estimates, from $0.5 to $2.5 million. Calculations by specialists, including data on official and “shadow” wages (the share of which, according to the Ministry of Economic Development, until recently amounted to about 40%), show that the income of management and employees Russian companies may vary by 100-500 times. People earn income either by creating their own business or by providing their own factors of production for the use of other people or firms. And they use this property to produce goods that people need. This mechanism of income generation initially contains the possibility of income inequality.

The emergence of a new class of “working poor” Russians is explained by the fact that their wages are significantly less than the real cost of reproduction of the labor force. The undervaluation of Russian labor turns out to be quite significant, even taking into account the traditionally low labor productivity: according to some calculations, the average Russian worker produces 3 times more goods per dollar of salary than a European or American. In the Russian debate about labor income inequality, the state is “to blame” for denying full social protection. In Russia, the bulk of the poor are those who are under the care of the state - primarily, workers in a number of categories of the public sector and pensioners. A significant share of allocated funds channeled through social programs goes not to the poor, but even to rich Russians (10% of subsidies go to citizens belonging to the richest 20% of Russians). The main reason is the impossibility of targeted social assistance in conditions where the shadow economy accounts for 44% of GDP.

The state's ability to redistribute income is largely limited by budget revenues. The mechanism of social transfers includes the withdrawal of part of the income in the form of taxes from the middle and high-income segments of the population and the payment of benefits to those most in need and

disabled people, as well as unemployment benefits. This reduces the desire of both to maximize earnings. As a result, incentives for productive work are undermined, and, consequently, the efficiency of the economy will decrease and National economy risks entering a period of prolonged stagnation.

The state is obliged to carry out active public social policy, aimed at ensuring its citizens the most important social rights. The devaluation of labor reduces the economic responsibility of the employee for the work performed and negatively affects the productivity of social labor. It is poverty that determines the limited access of a significant part of our country’s population to development resources: high-paying jobs, quality education and healthcare services, opportunities for the successful socialization of children and youth.

What determines the strength of the wind?

a) From the proximity of the oceans.

b) From the pressure difference.

c) On the speed of rotation of the Earth.

d) From the time of year.

17. The reason for the uneven distribution of temperature over the earth’s surface is:

a) distance from the Sun

b) rotation around the Sun

c) the sphericity of the Earth

d) the internal structure of the Earth

What flora and fauna are typical for savannas?

a) lingonberries, arctic foxes, cloudberries, reindeer

b) feather grass, wheatgrass, foxes, marmots

c) baobab, antelopes, grass, leopards

d) polar bears, mosses, lichens, walruses

19. Representatives of the Mongoloid race are most common in:

a) Asia b) America c) Africa d) Europe

20. Science of rocks and minerals:

a) cartography b) geography c) topography d) geology

Why is there a change in natural zones on the Earth's surface? The answer must contain at least two reasons.

Temperature and humidity change across the Earth's surface.

Final test for the geography course (grade 6) II OPTION

1. The angle of inclination of the earth’s axis is:

2. Geographic longitude is the distance from:

a) Greenwich

b) Prime meridian

c) Prime meridian

d) All answer options are correct

a) Summer solstice

b) Vernal equinox

c) Autumn equinox

d) Winter solstice

4. The scale indicated on the site plan is “one centimeter – 6 m.” It corresponds to a numerical scale:

5. The thickness of the continental crust is:

b) 50-80 km.

6. Rocks formed as a result of cooling of mantle material are called:

a) Metamorphic

b) Sedimentary

c) Magmatic

d) Organic

7. Plains on the map are indicated by color:

a) Blue

b) Yellow

c) Green

d) Brown

8. The change of day and night is caused by:

a) The rotation of the Earth around its axis

b) The rotation of the Earth around the sun

c) The tilt of the earth's axis

d) The orbit of the Earth’s annual rotation

9. Noctilucent clouds form in:

a) Stratosphere c) Ionosphere

b) Troposphere d) Upper layers of the atmosphere

10. If during the day the temperature measurements were in the morning +9°C, in the afternoon +24°C, in the evening +12°C, then the average temperature of the day is equal to:

11. The lowest atmospheric pressure is observed at:

a) On the seashore

b) Lowlands

d) Top of the mountain

12. What is the process NOT is part of the water cycle:

a) Evaporation

b) Precipitation

c) Storm at sea

d) Melting of snow and ice

13. Drainage lakes differ from drainage lakes:

a) Dimensions

b) The color of the water

c) Depth

d) The taste of water

14. The natural change of natural components and natural complexes with the rise is:

a) Latitudinal zoning

b) Altitudinal zone

c) Natural area

d) Natural complex

15. What letter is marked on the map:

1. Arctic Ocean in

2. Drake Passage

3.Andes mountains b

4.Australia a

16. Pressure depends on:

a) Wind forces

b) wind direction

c) air temperature differences

d) humidity

17. altitude above sea level is called:

a) horizontal

b) relative

c) vertical