home Credits Artificial real estate objects depending on the purpose. Objects of artificial origin. Debris blown by the wind

Artificial real estate objects depending on the purpose. Objects of artificial origin. Debris blown by the wind

The classification of real estate objects according to various criteria (categories) contributes to a more successful research of the real estate market and facilitates the development and application of methods for estimating the value of various types of real estate. In the process of classification, separate groups of real estate are distinguished that have similar characteristics of functioning, which determines the possibility of uniform approaches to their assessment.

For these purposes, different classification principles can be applied depending on their origin and purpose. However, the definition of real estate involves the allocation of two components in its structure.

- Natural (natural) objects- land plot, forest and perennial plantings, isolated water bodies and subsoil plots. These properties are also referred to as “real estate by nature”.

- Artificial objects (buildings):

a) Residential Properties- low-rise building (up to three floors), high-rise building (from 4 to 9 floors), high-rise buildings (from 10 to 20 floors), high-rise building (over 20 floors). The object of residential real estate can also be a condominium, a section (entrance), a floor in an entrance, an apartment, a room, a country house;

b) commercial real estate- offices, restaurants, shops, hotels, shopping and entertainment centers, garages for rent, warehouses, buildings and structures, enterprises as a property complex, etc.;

in) public (special) buildings and structures

- health-improving (hospitals, polyclinics, nursing homes and children's homes, sanatoriums, sports complexes, etc.);

Educational (kindergartens and nurseries, schools, colleges, technical schools, institutes, children's art houses, etc.);

Cultural and educational (museums, exhibition complexes, parks of culture and recreation, houses of culture and theaters, circuses, planetariums, zoos, botanical gardens, etc.);

Special buildings and structures - administrative (police, court, prosecutor's office, authorities), monuments, memorial structures, railway stations, ports, etc.;

G) engineering structures- reclamation facilities and drainage, complex engineering preparation of a land plot for development, etc.

Each of these groups can be further disaggregated based on different typological criteria.

Man-made objects have been called "property by law", but this category of real estate is based on "property by nature". Man-made objects may be fully built and ready for operation, may require reconstruction or major repairs, and also applies to unfinished construction projects. . "Incomplete" refers to objects for which documents on acceptance of the object into operation have not been issued in the prescribed manner. Construction in progress can be divided into two groups: objects on which work is being carried out, and objects on which, for one reason or another, work has been stopped. In accordance with the current procedure, two types of termination of work at the facility are distinguished: conservation and complete cessation of construction. The decision on the termination of construction is made by the developer. The decision must indicate the reasons for the conservation or complete cessation of construction, as well as:

In case of conservation - the period for which the construction is conserved (temporarily terminated), the conditions of conservation, the name of the organization that is responsible for preparing the construction site for conservation, the safety of the constructed facilities and the work performed;

In the event of a complete cessation of construction - the procedure for the liquidation and use of already constructed facilities or their parts, assembled structures and equipment, the sale of material assets brought to the construction site.

Land plots can be divisible and indivisible. A plot is called divisible when it can be divided into parts and form independent land plots with permission for the intended use.. In accordance with the legislation, the division of urban lands, lands of farms, etc. is not allowed.

The land fund in the Russian Federation for economic purposes is divided into seven categories of land:

1. Agricultural land have a special legal status in the real estate market and are used:

For agricultural production (arable land, hayfields, pastures, fallow lands, perennial plantations, virgin lands and other lands);

For personal subsidiary farming;

For collective gardening and horticulture;

For auxiliary agricultural production;

For experimental and scientific stations.

The transfer of land from this category to another is carried out only by decision of the subject of the Federation. Especially valuable lands are not subject to privatization.

2. Lands of cities and towns occupy 4% of the country. These lands house residential buildings and socio-cultural institutions, as well as streets, parks, squares, environmental structures; industrial, transport, energy, defense facilities and agricultural production can be located. This category of land provides 86% of the revenues to the consolidated budget from all payments for land use and can only be used in accordance with general plans and projects.

3. Lands of industry, transport, communications, television, informatics and space support, energy, defense and other purposes. They have a special mode of use.

4. Lands of specially protected territories include reserves; green zones of cities, rest houses, camp sites; monuments of nature, history and culture; mineral waters and therapeutic mud, botanical gardens, etc. This category of land is intended for the improvement of people, mass recreation and tourism, as well as for historical and cultural education and aesthetic enjoyment. Such lands are protected by special legislation, and economic activity are prohibited on them.

5. The lands of the forest fund are completely determined by the legal regime of the forests growing on them. This category of land includes land covered with forests and provided for the needs of forestry and local industry.

6. Lands of the water fund. These are lands occupied by reservoirs, glaciers, swamps (except for the tundra and forest-tundra), hydraulic structures and their right of way.

7. reserve lands serve as a reserve and are allocated for various purposes.

The sale of land plots, as well as their allocation for entrepreneurial activity and transfer from one category to another, is carried out in accordance with the laws of the Russian Federation and the subjects of the Federation.

For example, the list of lands intended use, which are not subject to sale, is determined by law. These include:

a) are in state (municipal) ownership:
- protected or specially used natural territories (reserves, natural monuments, national and dendrological parks, botanical gardens, etc.);
- land plots of historical and cultural heritage of federal significance according to the list approved by the Government of the Russian Federation; - land plots of forest and water funds; - land plots of recreational, historical and cultural purposes;
- land plots of crematoria and cemeteries;

b) undeveloped land plots:

Agricultural, forest and water funds, specially protected lands, for which the legislation of the Russian Federation establishes a special privatization regime;
- contaminated with hazardous substances and subjected to biogenic contamination;
- public use (streets, driveways, roads, embankments, parks, forest parks, squares, gardens, boulevards, ponds, beaches and other areas classified as public lands in accordance with the law);

Located in sea, river and air ports of federal significance or allocated (reserved) for their future development;
- being in temporary use without the right to erect capital structures;
- for which, at the time of application, there are disputes about the ownership of these plots or real estate that is strongly associated with it;

Others not subject to privatization in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation.

The above lands belong to the category current use of the land, those. not for sale. A land plot in circulation is used to generate income, including by renting it out, contributing to the share capital, as security for collateral, etc.

The above systems of classification of real estate and land plots are currently accepted as the basis for accounting in the assets of enterprises. However they consider real estate objects not as a whole, but as fixed assets and a land plot. However, if we analyze the market value of real estate, there is a need to develop our own classification system that would allow us to take into account the main “commodity” properties of a holistic appraisal object and would be linked to existing systems for classifying and describing objects.

With regard to residential real estate, several typological constructions are possible. For example, depending on the duration and nature of the use of housing:

Primary housing - a place of permanent residence;

Secondary housing - suburban housing used for a limited period of time;

Tertiary housing - intended for short-term residence (hotels, motels)

With regard to the conditions of large cities, it is customary to distinguish the following typological characteristics of residential real estate:

1. Elite housing. It has the following basic requirements: accommodation in the most prestigious areas of the city; belonging to the “old” fund (in the presence of a major overhaul and reconstruction) or to the “Stalinist” fund; brick walls; the total area of apartments is not less than 70 sq. m.; the presence of isolated rooms in a configuration close to a square, and a large kitchen (with an area of at least 15 sq.m.); the presence of a guarded entrance, an underground or nearby garage, etc.

Low-rise cottage-type houses that are part of the elite are characterized by such consumer requirements as: location at such a distance from the city when the trip takes no more than 1 hour; brick walls; building on two or more levels; availability of household and engineering services.

2. Superior housing. Consumer demand for housing of this type implies the presence of the following main characteristics: the possibility of accommodation in various (not only the most prestigious) areas of the city; some reduction in requirements for the area of rooms and kitchens to 12 and 8 square meters. m (respectively); the presence of a living room with an area of at least 17 square meters. m.; greater variety of design and technological parameters.

With regard to low-rise buildings located in a suburban area, the main characteristics are high strength, durability and low thermal conductivity of the walls, as well as the availability of engineering networks.

3. Typical housing. It is characterized by: accommodation in any district of the city; compliance of architectural and planning parameters with modern building codes and regulations; in terms of design and technological parameters, belonging to the houses of the second generation of industrial housing construction and modern ones.

For low-rise suburban development, not only technical characteristics are the most significant, but also the availability of basic social facilities.

4. Housing of low consumer qualities. Based on the conditions of consumer demand, which is formed under the influence of the solvency factor, the requirements for this type of housing are very small: accommodation in non-prestigious areas; remoteness from the main transport communications; belonging to such constructive and technological types as buildings of the "old" fund, which were not subjected to capital and repair and construction work, and houses of the first generation of industrial housing construction; accommodation in the first floors of houses of other types; underestimated architectural and planning characteristics, etc.

The considered classification takes into account the preferences of the target groups of housing consumers and the level of their solvency (marketing approach). However, residential real estate can be divided into On the basis of urban planning guidelines, in general, the following features can be distinguished:

Architectural and planning solutions;

Structural and technological characteristics;

Location (prestige of the area, location in close proximity to the places of application of labor;

Time, years of construction, terms of operation, reconstruction, repair;

Modern residential buildings with a wide variety of characteristics.

There is also classification of residential real estate objects depending on the material used for the outer walls of the building: - houses with brick walls; - panel houses; - monolithic houses; -wooden houses; - houses of the mixed type. A separate niche is occupied by suburban real estate due to the small volume of transactions and their specificity.

The signs of classification of residential real estate, which served as the basis for the grouping, are different, as are their motivations, preferences, and conditions of solvency. It is not possible to use a single typological criterion that integrates the influence of all factors. Therefore, in practice, several criteria are used to give a reasonable idea of the property.

Commercial real estate can be divided into income-generating - actually commercial real estate and creating conditions for its extraction - industrial (industrial) real estate.

To income generating property, can be attributed to:

1. Office rooms. When classifying office premises in each region, municipality, various factors are taken into account, according to which the premises belong to a particular class. This can be the location, the quality of the building (the level of finishing, the state of the facade, the central entrance, the availability of elevators), the quality of management (the management company, the availability of additional services for tenants), etc.

2. Hotels. Hotel projects in the Russian Federation today are the most difficult types of investment in profitable real estate. Construction of new or reconstruction of old hotels of the highest class, their equipment and operating costs are considered to be quite a risky investment, because. the costs of such projects are several times higher than the costs of building fashionable shopping malls or office centers. In addition, five-star hotels have very long payback periods, so Russian market income-generating real estate gravitates towards low-rate hotels and lower capital investments.

3. Parking garages (car parks)) how commercial real estate in the country has prospects. After all, for every thousand inhabitants, in accordance with the norms, about 150 parking spaces are required.

4. Shops and malls. The factors that determine success in this segment include: the right location; drawing up a functional solution and accumulation; the needs of potential visitors; correctly compiled forecast for the development of the territory adjacent to the building site;
- the general atmosphere of the ITC, which is achieved in the process of design and design development; well-designed selection of tenants; the right management company. For shopping complexes, in addition to the listed factors, it is especially required to provide service tenants (for example, constant cleaning of the territory, repair service of scales, round-the-clock security, cardboard pressing, etc.).

The problems that cause a shortage of liquid and promising for investment retail real estate in most cities of Russia are similar and are primarily related to the structure of the non-residential stock that developed in the pre-reform period:

A small share of non-residential premises is allocated for profitable business, a significant part of which is occupied by various organizations;

The unsatisfactory location of many objects that are functionally suitable for commercial use does not allow their development;

In large industrial cities, the share of industrial real estate in the structure of non-residential stock is excessively high, the conversion of which requires significant investment and is often difficult due to unclear legal status;

Most of the non-residential stock is in an unsatisfactory technical condition;

In most cities, investment activity is concentrated mainly in the city center.

5. Industrial (industrial) real estate in Russia is at the initial stage of development. Before concluding a deal, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive analysis of title documents to make sure that the seller's rights to the proposed object are indisputable, the possibility of its legal alienation and the rights of the new owner to use this object for its intended purpose.

In the established Western market adopted another, different from the above proposed classification of real estate in categories A, B and C.

Category A. Real estate objects used by the owner for doing business: - real estate objects used for running a certain business. Usually sold together with the business (specialized real estate); - non-specialized real estate - ordinary buildings - shops, offices, factories, warehouses, etc., which are usually sold or rented out.

Classification of real estate can be carried out according to the criterion of participation in the production process. All real estate of the enterprise can be conditionally divided into three groups:

1. Real estate for industrial purposes - objects that are directly involved in the production process.

2. Real estate for non-production purposes (auxiliary) - objects that are not directly involved in the production process, but their presence is necessary for the full and efficient operation of the entire enterprise (warehouses, ABK, canteen, access roads, other buildings and structures).

3. Non-core real estate - objects, for various reasons, not participating in the main, non-auxiliary activities of the enterprise, which include: - physically and morally obsolete objects, - objects released due to the lack of a work front, - objects of construction in progress.

The classification of real estate objects formulated briefly includes.

1. Functional purpose of real estate:

production - directly or indirectly involved in the creation of goods;

non-production - do not participate in the creation of goods, provide conditions for servicing and living of the population;

2. Reproducible types of real estate include: buildings; structures; perennial plantations.

3. Non-produced types of real estate include: land plots; natural deposits; natural water pools.

4. According to the degree of readiness for operation, they distinguish: commissioned real estate; Construction in progress.

5. Various real estate objects are subject to classification depending on the characteristics and their operational and technological indicators.

6. Buildings can be: industrial purposes; cultural and domestic; serving; residential.

7. Each building is different: number of storeys (single-storey, 2-storey, multi-storey); type of building material (stone, wood, mixed, adobe, adobe, panel); temperature regime (heated, not heated); types of lighting (natural overhead, side, artificial, combined); air exchange system (natural, mechanical, air conditioning); capital (especially capital, ordinary, lightweight, chopped); service life (100, 80, 65, 40.20 years).

8. Approximately according to this scheme, it is possible to make a classification of structures, perennial plantations, etc.

From the point of view of the interests of the owner, it is advisable to divide the existing real estate of the enterprise for operating and investment. The main purpose of this classification is to identify non-core real estate objects, the maintenance of which on the balance sheet creates high costs per unit of output.

Table. The main features of operating and investment real estate as objects of management

Characteristic	Operating real estate	Investment property
Definition	Owner-occupied property intended for use in the production or supply of goods, services, or administrative purposes.	Property held (by the owner or by the lessee under a finance lease) to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both
How to use by the owner	Tangible asset, with its direct use in the production process	Source of income, without using it directly as a user
Management Goal	Minimization of costs with the required quality of services providing real estate	Maximizing income and real estate value
Cash flow generation	Cash flows refer not only to real estate, but also to other assets used in the production process	Real estate cash flows are largely independent of the entity's other assets
Risks	Risk of unexpected costs. Inflation risk. Risk of production and economic activities	Risk of changes in cash flows. The risk of changes in the value of the property. The risk of being unclaimed.

An object of real estate is any commodity that is rigidly connected with a piece of land, so that its transfer to another place is impossible without its destruction (without the loss of its use value).

The classification of real estate objects according to various characteristics (criteria) contributes to a more successful research of the real estate market and facilitates the development and application of methods for estimating the value of various categories of real estate.

1. Natural (natural) objects - a land plot, forest and perennial plantations, isolated water bodies and subsoil plots. These properties are also referred to as “real estate by nature”.

2. Artificial objects (buildings):

a) residential real estate - a low-rise building (up to three floors), a multi-storey building (from 4 to 9 floors), a high-rise building (from 10 to 20 floors), a high-rise building (over 20 floors). The object of residential real estate can also be a condominium, a section (entrance), a floor in an entrance, an apartment, a room, a country house;

b) commercial real estate - offices, restaurants, shops, hotels, garages for rent, warehouses, buildings and structures, enterprises as a property complex;

c) public (special) buildings and structures.

Medical and recreational (hospitals, clinics, nursing homes and children's homes, sanatoriums, sports complexes, etc.);

Educational (kindergartens and nurseries, schools, colleges, technical schools, institutes, children's art houses, etc.);

Cultural and educational (museums, exhibition complexes, parks of culture and recreation, houses of culture and theaters, circuses, planetariums, zoos, botanical gardens, etc.);

Special buildings and structures - administrative (police, court, prosecutor's office, authorities), monuments, memorial structures, railway stations, ports, etc.;

d) engineering structures - ameliorative structures and drainage, complex engineering preparation of a land plot for development, etc.

Each of these groups can be further disaggregated based on different typological criteria.

Man-made objects have been called "property by law", but this category of real estate is based on "property by nature".

Man-made objects may be fully built and ready for operation, may require reconstruction or major repairs, and also refers to construction projects in progress (work in progress).

In addition, real estate objects, as a rule, are part of the property complex of enterprises and organizations (in particular, those being privatized) and significantly affect their value. There are other categories of real estate (for example, mineral deposits), the market for which has not yet formed.

The grouping of real estate objects proposed below is intended to promote a differentiated approach to their assessment, taking into account the most significant features inherent in each group of objects, the characteristics of their turnover, the structure and scale of the markets within which the sale and purchase processes take place. Real estate appraisal is of interest, first of all, for categories of objects that are actively circulating on the market as an independent product. Currently in Russia it is:

apartments and rooms;

premises and buildings for offices or shops;

suburban residential buildings with land plots (cottages and summer cottages);

vacant land plots intended for development or for other purposes (in the short term);

warehouse and production facilities.

A variety of conditions and their combinations affect the assessment of an object.

We give an example of signs of classification.

1. Purpose: vacant land plots (for development or other purposes); natural complexes (deposits) for their exploitation; buildings: for housing, for office, for trade and paid services, for industry, others.

2. Scale: land masses, separate land plots; complexes of buildings and structures, multi-apartment residential building; single-apartment residential building (mansion, cottage), section (entrance), floor in a section, apartment, room, summer cottage, complex of administrative buildings, building, premises or parts of buildings (sections, floors).

3. Ready for use: ready objects; requiring reconstruction or major repairs; requiring completion of construction.

To assess the value of land, buildings and structures are divided into two classes:

specialized real estate;

non-specialized real estate.

Specialized property is property that, because of its special nature, is rarely, if ever, sold on the open market to continue an existing use by a single owner, unless it is sold as part of the business that uses it. The special nature of real estate is usually due to its design features, specialization, size, location, or a combination of these factors.

Non-specialized property is property for which there is a general demand and which is usually bought, sold or leased on the open market for the purpose of using it for an existing or similar purpose, or as an investment, or for development and development.

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Introduction

2.1 Buildings

2.2 Premises

2.3 Structures

2.4 Engineering structures

Chapter 3

3.2 Unique man-made objects

Conclusion

References

Introduction

Typology -- classification according to essential features. It is based on the concept of type as a unit of division of the studied reality, a specific ideal model of historically developing objects.

The classification of real estate objects according to various criteria (criteria) contributes to a more successful study of objects. For these purposes, different classification principles can be applied depending on their origin and purpose.

Real estate is a type of property recognized by law as immovable.

Real estate by origin includes land plots, subsoil plots and everything that is firmly connected with land, that is, objects that cannot be moved without disproportionate damage to their purpose, including buildings, structures, objects of construction in progress.

In addition to real estate by origin, in Russia there is “real estate by law”. It includes air and sea vessels subject to state registration, inland navigation vessels, and space objects.

The definition of real estate objects implies the presence of two elements in their structure

1. Natural (natural) objects - a land plot, forest and perennial plantations, isolated water bodies and subsoil plots. They are also called "real estate by nature".

2. Man-made objects (buildings): apartment buildings, commercial, public (special) buildings and structures, engineering structures. These objects can be fully built and ready for operation, may require reconstruction or major repairs, and also refers to unfinished construction objects.

Chapter 1

Lands in the Russian Federation are divided into the following categories according to their intended purpose:

1. Agricultural land - land located outside the boundaries of the settlement and provided for the needs of agriculture, as well as intended for these purposes. They include agricultural land, land occupied by on-farm roads, communications, forest plantations designed to protect land from the impact of negative (harmful) natural, anthropogenic and man-made phenomena, water bodies, as well as buildings, structures, structures used for production , storage and primary processing of agricultural products.

2. The lands of settlements are recognized as lands used and intended for the construction and development of settlements. The composition of the lands of settlements may include land plots classified in accordance with urban planning regulations to the following territorial zones: residential; social and business; production; engineering and transport infrastructures; recreational; agricultural use; special purpose; military installations; other territorial zones. The boundaries of territorial zones must meet the requirements that each land plot belong to only one zone. The rules for land use and development establish urban planning regulations for each territorial zone individually, taking into account the peculiarities of its location and development, as well as the possibility of territorial combination of various types of land use (residential, public and business, industrial, recreational and other types of land use). land plots located within the boundaries of one territorial zone, a single urban planning regulation is established. The urban planning regulations of the territorial zone determine the basis of the legal regime of land plots, as well as everything that is above and below the surface of land plots and is used in the process of building and subsequent operation of buildings, structures, structures.

3. Industrial and other special-purpose lands, depending on the nature of the special tasks for which they are used or intended, are divided into: industrial lands; energy lands; transport land; lands of communication, broadcasting, television, informatics; land for space activities; lands of defense and security; land for other special purposes. In order to ensure the safety of the population and create the necessary conditions for the operation of industrial facilities, energy facilities, especially radiation and nuclear hazardous facilities, storage facilities for nuclear materials and radioactive substances, transport and other facilities, security, sanitary -protective and other zones with special conditions for land use. Land plots included in such zones are not confiscated from the owners of land plots, land users, land owners and tenants of land plots, but a special regime for their use may be introduced within their boundaries, restricting or prohibiting those types of activities that are incompatible with the goals of establishing zones .

4. The lands of specially protected territories include lands that have a special environmental, scientific, historical, cultural, aesthetic, recreational, health and other valuable value. These include specially protected natural areas, including health-improving areas and resorts; lands of nature protection, recreational, historical and cultural purposes.

5. Lands of the Forest Fund - lands of the Forest Fund include forest lands (lands covered with forest vegetation and not covered with it, but intended for its restoration, felling, burnt areas, sparse areas, clearings and others) and non-forest lands intended for forestry (clearings, roads, swamps and others), except for forests on defense lands, urban settlements, as well as trees and shrubs on agricultural lands, transport, settlements, water resources and other categories. For permanent (perpetual) use, lease, gratuitous fixed-term use, forest plots that are in state or municipal ownership are provided to legal entities, for lease, gratuitous fixed-term use - to citizens. Granting to citizens, legal entities in lease of the forest areas which are in the state or municipal property, is carried out according to the Forest code of the Russian Federation.

6. The lands of the water fund include lands:

Covered by surface waters concentrated in water bodies;

Occupied by hydraulic and other structures located on water bodies.

Land plots are not formed on lands covered with surface waters. Land is reserved for the construction of reservoirs and other artificial water bodies. The procedure for the use and protection of lands of the water fund is determined by the Land Code of the Russian Federation and water legislation.

7. Reserve lands include lands that are in state or municipal ownership and not provided to citizens or legal entities, with the exception of lands of the land redistribution fund, formed in accordance with Article 80 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation. The use of reserve lands is allowed after they are transferred to another category, except in cases where reserve lands are included in the boundaries of hunting grounds, and in other cases provided for by federal laws.

1.2 Land plots by land

Land is divided into agricultural and non-agricultural.

Agricultural include:

1. Arable land includes land plots that are systematically cultivated for crops, as well as pure fallows, including crops of perennial grasses in crop rotation fields with a use period provided for by crop rotations, and output fields. The aisles of orchards and other perennial plantations temporarily used for sowing crops are not included in the area of arable land, but are taken into account as areas of perennial plantations. Also, arable land does not include areas of improved hayfields and cultivated pastures, plowed up for the period of grass stand renewal, as well as occupied by crops of previous crops (for no more than two years), plowed up in order to create perennial pastures or improved hayfields on them.

2. Perennial plantations include land plots occupied by artificially created tree, shrub or herbaceous perennial plantations capable of producing fruits and berries, technical or medical products.

3. Fallow land is considered to be land that was previously plowed, but now, due to certain circumstances, for more than one year, starting from autumn, is not used for sowing crops and is not prepared for fallow. Plowed areas of hayfields and pastures left for natural overgrowing with herbage are not considered fallow lands.

4. Hayfields are land covered with perennial herbaceous vegetation, which are systematically used for haymaking.

5. Waterlogged hayfields Consider excessively wetted hayfields located on low relief elements or on poorly drained level flat areas, terraced areas of backwaters and depressions of watershed and flat plateaus, as well as on the edge of swamps with moisture-loving grassy vegetation.

6. Pastures are lands covered with perennial herbaceous vegetation, which are systematically used for grazing, not suitable for hayfields and which are not fallows. In addition, the composition of pastures takes into account the areas of feeding and quarantine plots, as well as the area of cattle passing. Pastures are divided into dry and swampy.

Non-agricultural include:

1. Forest areas are land plots covered with forest, including forest plantations that have closed and not closed, edges, log cabins, fires and dead plantations, cutting areas that have not been covered with forest, gaps and wastelands, forest nurseries.

2. Swamps - land plots are excessively moistened with soil and atmospheric waters with the presence of decomposed and semi-decomposed residues in the form of peat on the surface.

3. Take into account the land occupied by water - natural and artificial reservoirs. With this separate accounting, lands occupied by rivers and streams, lakes, including freshwater ones, reservoirs, rates and other artificial reservoirs, canals, collectors and ditches are subject to separate accounting.

4. Under roads, runs and clearings, the lands occupied by railways, highways, inter-settlement, intra-farm roads, cattle runs and clearings are taken into account.

5. Under the public courtyards, streets and squares, the lands occupied by production centers, field camps, streets and squares are taken into account; Under public buildings - Occupied by industrial, cultural and household and other houses and structures.

6. Among the disturbed lands, lands, the soil cover, which are disturbed during the development of mineral deposits and their processing, as well as during geological exploration, peat mining, construction and other works, are taken into account.

7. Among other lands that are not used in agriculture, there are: Sands that are blown away are devoid of vegetation; Ravines - land plots of a linear form of relief of erosional origin with a depth of one meter with an absent or poorly formed soil cover and an exit on the slopes of the lower genetic soil horizons; lands occupied by landslides, screes, clay and rubble surfaces and pebbles.

1.3 Land fund Verkhnevilyuysky ulus

real estate property land unique

Geography

Territory - 43 170 km². It borders in the north with Oleneksky, in the northeast with Vilyuisky, in the southeast with Gorny, in the south with Olekminsky, in the southwest with Suntarsky, in the west with Nyurbinsky uluses.

The ulus is located on the middle reaches of the Vilyui River. Large tributaries flowing through the territory of the ulus: Chybyda, Tuken, Tonguo. Like most of the territory of northern and central Yakutia, it lies in the area of \u200b\u200b"permafrost". The climate is sharply continental, in winter the temperature reaches 60 degrees below zero Celsius, in summer - up to +33.

Story

17th century - early 20th century

It was first mentioned in written sources in connection with the arrival of Russian Cossacks on the banks of the Vilyui at the beginning of the 17th century. The Mangazeya Cossacks, led by Warrior Shakhov, put the so-called. Verkhnevilyuisky winter hut on the left bank of the Vilyui, at the confluence of the Tyuken River. In the 60s of the 17th century, there was a church, a commissioner's office, a treasury and 7 residential buildings on this site.

In 1770, Ivan Argunov, the manager of the Verkhnevilyui winter quarter, wrote a petition to the Yakut voivodship office to move the winter quarter 45 km lower, to the right bank of the Vilyui in the Yolennekh area (this is 30 km lower from the current location of the village of Verkhnevilyuysk). On November 29, 1770, a transfer order was issued. At the new location, the settlement was given the name Olensk. And in 1783 the winter hut became the center of the Olensky district and received the status of a city. In 1771, there were 9 volosts on the territory of the winter hut: Botulinskaya, 3 Bordonsky, 3 Zharkhansky, Neryuktyaysky and Chochunsky. After 1771, there was a division into three administrative units (uluses) Verkhnevilyuisky, Srednevilyuisky and Suntarsky. In 1808, there were 14 volosts in Verkhnevilyuisky ulus, in 1817 - 13: two Zharkhansky, two Bordonsky, two Edyugeysky, Chochunsky, Nam, Orget, Botulu, Meyik, Yodei, Khangalas. In the Srednevilyuisky ulus in 1808 there were 12, in 1820 - 13 volosts: three Togus, 2 Kyrykyy, Modut, Tyaya, Mukuchu, Lyuchyun, Zhemkon, Orget, Kuokuy. In the Suntarsky ulus in 1796 there were 8, 9 volosts.

In 1824, the Verkhnevilyuisky ulus was divided into two more administrative units: into the Verkhnevilyuisky ulus proper (5 volosts remained) and the Markhinsky ulus (the current territory of the Nyurbinsky ulus. By 1835, there were already 10 volosts in the ulus: Meyik, Nam, Botulu, 2 Edyugeisky, 2 Khorinsky, Chochu, Orgemt, Halbaky From 1790 to 1800, the names volost and nasleg were simultaneously used, since 1840 only “nasleg” is mentioned in archival documents.

Judging by the report of 1856, 9386 Yakuts (foreigners) and 22 Russians lived in the Verkhnevilyuisky ulus. Engaged in animal husbandry: 6302 heads of large cattle, 4173 horses, meadows accounted for 18,800 acres. There were many lawsuits because of the agricultural land. Fishing was developed both on the river and on the lakes. Since November, many hunted fur-bearing animals. In April 1867, the village became the ulus center. Kuoramyky (now Verkhnevilyuisk). At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 24 naslegs in the ulus: I Chochu, II Chochu, Kharbalamkh, Kentik, Halbaky, Dyullyukyu, Orosu, Tuobuya, Mayimk, I Edyugei, II Edyugei, III Edyugei, Nam, I Horo, II Horo, I Kumlet, II Kumlet, Yugyulemt, I Botulu, II Botulu, Onogoschut, Chumkar, Surguluk.

Civil War 1918-1924

In 1918, Soviet power was established on the territory of the Verkhnevilyuisky ulus under the leadership of Stepan Arzhakov and Isidor Barakhov. But the organs of Soviet power did not last long, and in August 1918, in view of the threat of reprisal, Arzhakov and his comrades-in-arms left for Bodaibo. Until December 1919, the proteges of the Kolchak government ruled the ulus. Then again power passed to the Bolsheviks, led by Stepan Arzhakov. In the years, the white detachments, led by staff captain Semyon Kanin, Konon Nikiforov, Fedor Govorov, Pyotr Pavlov, Yeremey Popov, fought against the red detachments throughout the Vilyui basin. But there were no big bloody battles on the territory of the ulus. In many ways, this is the merit of the last head of the Verkhnevilyuisky ulus of that period, Potapov Yegor (George) Efimovich, who had great authority and kept the people from actively contributing to the white movement. The final victory of the Soviet power in the ulus was established after the arrival from Yakutsk on July 14 on the steamer "Dictator" of the red detachment of Ivan Strod.

Population

Economy

Agriculture

The basis of the economy is agriculture. The main industry is animal husbandry (meat and dairy cattle breeding, meat herd horse breeding), fur farming; grain crops, potatoes, vegetables are cultivated. Agricultural land is 69.3 thousand hectares.

Industry

Industrial production: forestry and woodworking, hunting and fishing, transport facilities.

Transport and communications

Automobile and river transport, airport, telegraph, telephone, internet, gas pipeline since 2005. A motorway passes through the territory of the ulus, connecting the main cities of the republic, Yakutsk and Mirny. There is a ferry (June - October), ice (December - April) crossing through the Vilyuy.

Education

Despite its relatively small size, the district is one of the main "suppliers" of the republic's intellectual elite. Without belittling the merits of other educational institutions of the ulus, we note that the main source of personnel is the republican gymnasium named after the people's teacher of the USSR M.A. Alekseev, the founder of the physical and mathematical movement in Yakutia.

School graduates now work not only throughout Yakutia and Russia, but also in many countries of Europe and America.

Chapter 2

2.1 Buildings

Buildings - a kind of ground building structure with premises created as a result of construction activities in order to carry out certain consumer functions, such as residence (dwelling), economic or other activities of people, location of production, storage of products or keeping animals. The building includes networks of engineering and technical support and systems (equipment) of engineering and technical support. The building may also have operated premises in the underground part. A structure that does not have an aboveground part is not a building.

Building classification:

1. By functional purpose

Civil buildings are intended for living and providing for the domestic, social and cultural needs of people.

Industrial - to ensure the required operating conditions and create optimal working conditions for people.

Agricultural buildings and structures are intended for various branches of agricultural production.

2. By type of project:

Individual projects (public buildings, universities, theaters…)

3.According to design schemes

Frameless

Frame

4. Based on the materials of the main structures

Wooden

5. By the size of the main elements of the building

Small size

6. According to the device

Monolithic buildings

Prefabricated-monolithic buildings

Types of civil buildings:

Classification of civil buildings by functional purpose

Residential buildings include:

Apartment-type houses (multi-apartment) intended for permanent residence;

Multi-apartment (individual) houses intended for permanent residence (cottages);

Dormitories - for long-term residence of people united by educational or labor activities;

Hotels and boarding houses - for short stays;

Boarding houses - for long-term residence of children separately from their parents, residence of the disabled and the elderly

Public buildings intended for a relatively long stay of people and serving their daily needs can include:

Kindergartens, nurseries and schools;

Administrative and office buildings;

Buildings of educational institutions;

Buildings of medical institutions.

Classification of civil buildings by number of storeys

According to the number of storeys, civil buildings can be divided into:

Low-rise - up to two floors high;

Multi-storey - ten to twenty-five floors;

High-rise - more than twenty-five floors.

Classification of civil buildings by durability

I degree - service life of more than 100 years;

II degree - service life within 50-100 years;

III degree - service life less than 20 years. Such buildings are classified as temporary.

Classification of civil buildings by fire resistance

In accordance with the requirements of SNiP 2.01.02-85 * “The fire safety standards of a building are divided into eight degrees of fire resistance: I, II, III, IIIa, III6, IV, IVa and V, depending on the values of the fire resistance limits and the limits of the spread of fire of the main building structures.

Industrial buildings are divided into 4 main groups:

1. production (buildings of mechanical assembly, repair, weaving and other workshops);

2. energy (buildings of thermal power plant, boiler houses, heating points, transformer substations, etc.);

3. transport and storage facilities (garages, warehouses, fire stations, etc.);

4. auxiliary (administrative and amenity buildings, food stations, medical stations, etc.).

Agricultural buildings are divided into:

By function:

livestock

Cowsheds and buildings for young animals

pigsties

stables

Sheepfolds

Others intended for keeping various farm animals

Poultry

Hatchery for artificial breeding of chickens

Poultry houses for keeping young animals

Poultry houses for keeping adult birds

Poultry houses for raising chickens for meat

Acclimatizers

Veterinary

Veterinary clinics and laboratories

hospitals

insulators

Facilities for processing the skin of animals

Veterinary and sanitary facilities - slaughterhouses,

Buildings designed to provide medical care to sick animals and birds, to carry out preventive and sanitary measures, as well as diagnostic studies

Silo and haylage

trenches

Towers used for the preparation and storage of sour silage and fresh silage

Warehouse

Vegetable storage

Granaries

elevators

Corn storage

Warehouses for mineral fertilizers

Cultivation

Greenhouses

greenhouses

Champignons

For the processing and processing of agricultural crops

Grain dryers

Industrial crop dryers

Vegetable dryers

Feed preparation and compound feed enterprises

mills

Pre-farm dairy points of primary processing

Dairy, butter, butter and cheese factories

Tomato-cooking and kvass-salting shops

For the repair of agricultural machines

Workshops for maintenance and light machine repairs

Workshops for the repair of hydraulic systems of tractors and combines

Garages for tractors, combines, cars

2.2 Premises

The premises of civil buildings are divided into:

According to their role in the functional process (rest, work, study)

1. basic

2. auxiliary

3. service

4. communication

2.3 Structures

Construction is the result of construction activities for the implementation of certain consumer functions.

1) Linear structures (main pipelines (water pipelines, collectors, heating networks, electrical networks, oil product pipelines and gas pipelines), roads and railways)

2) Areal structures - structures that physically occupy a part of the earth's surface, the reflection of which on the scale of the plan being prepared makes it possible to reflect their longitudinal and transverse dimensions.

3) Volumetric structures

4) High-rise buildings

2.4 Engineering structures

Electrical and telephone networks

Electrical network -- a set of electrical installations designed for the transmission and distribution of electricity from the power plant to the consumer.

The public telephone network is a subscriber communication network accessed by telephone sets and data transmission equipment.

Water pipes

Water supply - a system of continuous water supply to consumers, designed to carry water for drinking and technical purposes from one place (usually water intake facilities) to another - to the water user (city and factory premises) mainly through underground pipes or channels; at the final point, often purified from mechanical impurities in the filter system, the water is collected at a certain height in the so-called water-lifting towers, from where it is already distributed through the city water pipes. The volume of water intake is determined by water-measuring devices (so-called water meters, water meters). The water-pressure power of the water supply is also used for hydraulic purposes.

There are several ways to lay a pipeline:

Ground on supports and flyovers, with or without insulation;

Underground laying:

Trenching with the help of special equipment: an excavator, various kinds of devices for tractors; for short distances use manual force;

Trenchless laying technology, which is possible with horizontal drilling (abbr. HDD);

Collector, performed by the method of shield penetration.

The internal pipeline of buildings is laid:

In risers, technical mines;

In fines;

along the walls;

Under baseboards (pipes made of polymeric organic materials);

In the floor screed.

In the photo we see the ground way of laying the pipeline.

Sewerage

Sewerage is an integral part of the water supply and sanitation system, designed to remove solid and liquid human waste products, household and rainwater in order to clean them from pollution and further exploitation or return to the reservoir. A necessary element of modern urban and agricultural. Violation of its work can worsen the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the area.

Also, any system of channels is called sewerage, for example, cable ducting is used to lay cables underground.

By purpose and location, the sewage system can be divided into three large sections:

Internal sewerage - a system for collecting effluents inside buildings and structures and delivering them to the external sewerage system;

External sewerage - a system for collecting effluents from buildings and structures and delivering them to treatment facilities or to a place of discharge into a water intake;

Wastewater treatment system.

Additional information: Rain sewer

According to the collected effluents, sewerage is divided into:

Household and fecal (domestic) sewerage (designation K1);

Rain sewer (designation K2);

Industrial sewerage (designation K3).

Household and fecal (domestic) sewage is:

Centralized;

Autonomous;

gas pipeline

A gas pipeline is an engineering structure designed to transport gas and its products (mainly natural gas) through a pipeline. Gas is supplied through gas pipelines and gas networks under a certain excess pressure.

Gas pipelines are divided into:

Main gas pipelines are designed to transport gas over long distances. At certain intervals, gas compressor stations are installed on the pipeline to maintain pressure in the pipeline. At the end point of the main gas pipeline, gas distribution stations are located, at which the pressure is reduced to the level necessary to supply consumers.

Gas pipelines of distribution networks are designed to deliver gas from gas distribution stations to the end consumer.

Line pressure:

Trunk:

Distribution:

Low pressure - up to 0.005 MPa;

Medium - from 0.005 to 0.3 MPa;

Type of lining:

Aboveground;

Underground;

Underwater.

Reserve gas pipelines are being built for strategic reasons, to provide flexibility in loading gas carriers and to reduce the length of the transportation route.

Heating network

Thermal network -- a set of devices (including central heating points, pumping stations) designed to transfer thermal energy, coolant from thermal energy sources to heat-consuming installations.

The main elements of heat networks are a pipeline consisting of steel pipes interconnected by welding, an insulating structure designed to protect the pipeline from external corrosion and heat loss, and a supporting structure that perceives the weight of the pipeline and the forces that arise during its operation. The most critical elements are pipes, which must be sufficiently strong and tight at maximum pressures and temperatures of the coolant, have a low coefficient of thermal deformation, low roughness of the inner surface, high thermal resistance of the walls, which contributes to the preservation of heat, and the invariance of material properties during prolonged exposure to high temperatures and pressures .

According to the type of heat source, district heating systems are divided into district heating and district heating. In the system of district heating, the source of heat is the district boiler house, district heating-CHP. According to the type of heat carrier, heat supply systems are divided into two groups: water and steam. Heat carrier - a medium that transfers heat from a heat source to heating devices of heating, ventilation and hot water supply systems. The heat carrier receives heat in the district boiler house (or CHPP) and through external pipelines, which are called heat networks, enters the heating, ventilation systems of industrial, public and residential buildings. In heating devices located inside buildings, the coolant gives off part of the heat accumulated in it and is discharged through special pipelines back to the heat source. In water heating systems, the heat carrier is water, and in steam systems, steam.

Chapter 3

Buildings and structures that meet the following conditions are unique:

Designs and structural diagrams are used using non-standard or specially developed calculation methods, or requiring verification on physical models;

Buildings and structures erected in areas with seismic activity exceeding 9 points.

Unique buildings and structures include buildings and structures with a height exceeding 100 m, or with a span of more than 100 m, or with a cantilever overhang of more than 20 m, or if the depth of the underground part relative to the planning level of the earth is more than 15 m.

Unique buildings and structures also include sports and entertainment, places of worship, exhibition pavilions, shopping and entertainment complexes, and others with an estimated stay inside the facility of more than 1,000 people or more than 10,000 people nearby.

3.1 Unique natural site

The natural monument "Lena Pillars" in the Khangalassky ulus (district) of Yakutia, like the Manpupuner described above, is the result of weathering of rocks. However, the size of the Yakut monument significantly exceeds the Severoural one. The "Lena Pillars" stretch along the right bank of the Lena for several kilometers, and make a mystical impression on observers. The places around are wild, sparsely populated. There is an incredible silence around, and the purity of the air can make a city dweller dizzy. In this unusual place, the government of Yakutia has created a natural park. Tourists usually visit Lena Pillars in the summer, on motor ships and boats. The object is included in the UNESCO register as a unique monument of wildlife.

3.2 Unique man-made object

"They lit the pipe of peace" - this radiogram, transmitted from Yakutia in June 1955, marked the discovery of the second diamond deposit in the USSR. The geologists who made the discovery were rewarded with the most prestigious Lenin Prize, and eco-tourism lovers are waiting for a unique object in Russia.

By 2001, the depth of the quarry exceeded 500 m. However, studies have shown that the diamond-bearing rock lies to a depth of more than 1 km. In order to reduce the costs of reconstruction (and there were three in total), drainage and transportation (over 8 km of a spiral path separates the bottom of the quarry from the surface of the earth), it was decided to switch to the mine method of extraction. After the creation of a protective layer at the bottom of the depleted deposit, in 2009, the Mir underground mine began to operate.

Today "Mir" is one of the richest kimberlite (diamond-bearing) pipes in the world, therefore it is a landmark of Yakutia. Mining in an open pit with a diameter of more than 1 km began in 1957. To serve the deposit and the processing plant, the village of Mirny was created, which quickly became the "diamond capital" not only of Yakutia, but of the entire Soviet Union.

In 1980, a huge yellow diamond of irregular shape was mined here, which was named after the next congress of the Communist Party. This stone, located in the Diamond Fund, is among the second ten largest diamonds in the world and still remains the largest mined in our country.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we can say that the typology of real estate objects is very diverse, but the main classification is the division of real estate objects into artificial and natural. Artificial, in turn, are divided into buildings and structures, and they are already divided according to materials, sizes, design features, etc. Natural real estate objects are divided into categories, and also by land.

In the course of this term paper we learned how to visually determine the classification of real estate objects, learned their main characteristics and purposes.

References

1. zem-kadastr.ru

2. "House: Building terminology", M.: Buk-press, 2006.

3. www.google.ru

4. www.yandex.ru

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Submarine

Submarine (submarine, submarine) - a class of ships capable of submerging and operating underwater for a long time.

ritual, rite, custom

Ritual (lat. ritualis - ritual, from lat.

seismic profile

Geological dictionary defines seismic profile as a straight, less often broken, line on the surface of the Earth, along which seismic receivers are placed to study elastic (seismic

Trash

It often happens that garbage, accidentally or intentionally left by a person, can be mistaken for something anomalous: traces of aliens, alien eggs, unknown water and land creatures, etc.

Body modifications

Body modification is a biological and physical change in the human body that violates the existing structure of the body through surgical, genetic, plastic, biological correction.

Holes from bullets, stones and metal balls

On the windows of houses, regardless of the floor, there are holes of unknown nature and characteristic shape. Very often, if there are several glasses, only one is broken.

Skyscraper spiers, mountains, chimneys above the clouds

Parts of skyscrapers, chimneys with smoke coming out of them, high sections of mountains and other high areas of landscape and buildings that rise above clouds or fog can be mistaken for UFOs or ghosts.

Boat (watercraft)

Any water craft, especially an unusual shape, can be mistaken for an NGO.

Turning the tractor unit

During the boom in sightings of Crop Circles around the world, eyewitnesses, succumbing to the hype, mistook many ordinary things for them, such as tricks of the wind, pets on a leash, or mycelium

cable car

A cable car is a type of transport for moving passengers and goods, in which a traction or carrier-traction rope (cable) stretched between

space junk

Space debris refers to all artificial objects and their fragments in space that are already out of order, do not function, and can never again serve any useful purpose.

Satellite

Ordinary satellites, which often look like single, not very bright points of light, moving smoothly in the night sky, are often mistaken for UFOs.

solar sail

A solar sail is a device that uses the pressure of sunlight on a mirrored surface to propel a spacecraft.

UAV

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV, also sometimes abbreviated as UAV; colloquially, the name "drone" or "drone" (from the English drone - drone)) is sometimes used - an aircraft without eq

Kite

A tethered aircraft is heavier than air. It is supported in the air by wind pressure on a surface placed at a certain angle to the direction of wind movement and held by a lifeline from the ground.

Parachutist/hang glider

Parachute - a device made of fabric to slow down the movement of an object in the air. Parachutes are used for safe descent and landing of goods and people, braking of aircraft during landing.

Airplane/helicopter

An aircraft heavier than air for flights in the atmosphere (and outer space (eg.

Balloon

A toy of different sizes and shapes, most often made of latex. Inflated with air or other gas. If the gas used is lighter than air, the balloon acquires the ability to fly.

sky lattern

A sky lantern (Chinese lantern, Thai lantern) is a paper flying luminous structure made of rice paper stretched over a light wooden frame, a bamboo ring, and a burner.

Aerostat/Weather balloon

Aerostat (simplified is a balloon) - an aircraft lighter than air, where the gas enclosed in the shell (or heated air) with a lower density is used as a lifting force,

Airship

A lighter-than-air aircraft that is a combination of a propelled balloon (usually propeller driven by an electric motor or an internal combustion engine) and an ori control system.

Light sources on the clouds

Lasers, spotlights, car headlights and other light sources of sufficient power can form a column of light in a dusty or foggy atmosphere, different patterns in low areas

artificial comet

A rocket in the troposphere emits a cloud of sodium or barium vapor, which glow intensely when exposed to sunlight.

Debris blown by the wind

UFOs are often mistaken for empty plastic bags, trash bags, paper, newspapers, and other wind-blown debris. These objects can fly at different speeds, be of different colors and shapes.

foam clouds

At holidays and presentations, the apparatus is periodically used to make artificial clouds of various shapes. Clouds are composed of "foam liquid + water + gas" (helium).

Kopp-Etchells effect

A toy

A LED toy that is launched at night or evening can be mistaken for a UFO if accidentally taken from afar.

Street light

In many cities (especially European ones), street lighting lamps hanging on stretch wires are widespread.

reflector

A device with a surface with retroreflective properties. The operation of a reflector is based on a simple optical process of retroreflection.

Animals on a leash

In a meadow or other area with sufficient grass cover, cows, goats, horses and other herbivores are tied up, providing them with food and some opportunity to move freely.

Cigarette butt

If you accidentally shoot a landscape from the window of a high-rise building at night, a bright red-orange spot may appear in the photo.

Launch vehicle, part of the rocket and their traces

UFOs are often mistaken for rocket stages, parts of spaceships burning in the atmosphere, launches of various military rocketry, etc., as well as traces from them.

ETHNOLOGY

"EARTH MARKS" AND "ROAD MARKS": GROUND NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS IN THE SYSTEM OF SPATIAL ORIENTATION

TUNDRA NENETS1

V.N. Adaev

A set of ground natural and artificial landmarks used by the Nenets, as well as the practice of memorizing and using them are presented. The proposed by K.V. Istomin and M.J. Dwyer’s two-level knowledge of the terrain of the tundra Nenets, where the upper level allows you to easily move around the territory, and the lower one contains detailed knowledge of the landscape necessary for reindeer herding. It is concluded that rivers and hills are universal and primary natural landmarks for the tundra Nenets.

Spatial orientation, tundra Nenets, northern landscapes, symbols, roads.

The Nenets, like some other indigenous peoples of the world, have earned the reputation of virtuoso orientated people, whose talent not to stray from the right direction in the absence of visible landmarks (in the conditions of the polar night, in blizzard and fog) has become legendary, and almost superhuman abilities were seen behind him. . The Nenets deep knowledge of the northern land and the experience of orientation in space from the very beginning were in demand by Russian settlers in Siberia. The very development of the Yamal North could not have taken place without an obligatory person from among the indigenous people - the “interpreter and guide”, who accompanied the expeditions from the early period until the first decades of the 20th century.

Meanwhile, the orientation system of the Nenets population is still a topic that has not been studied specifically. This paper, written primarily on the basis of field materials collected in 2014 in the Nadym, Taz and Yamal regions of the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Okrug,2 examines the set of natural and artificial land landmarks used by the Nenets, as well as the practice of memorizing and using them. The methodological basis of the research is works similar in subject matter on the ethnography of other peoples as our country [Kulemzin, 1998, 2000; Lavrilier, 2010; Istomin, Dwyer, 2009] and abroad [Lebedeva, 2008; Allen, 2000; Aporta, 2003, 2009; Leroi-Gourhan, 1993; and etc.].

Basic terminology

The Nenets expressions sekherim "khos" ("find a way") and yam" taslamba ("determine the land") were recorded as the closest equivalents of the concept "orient yourself" by the participants of the field research. Two main versions are noted for the term "landmark": ya" nenadumbava ("earth mark"), in a simpler version - nenadumd", nenadumda" ma ("mark"); sekhery tu "uy ("road sign"). The nuances of the differences in the above terminology will be highlighted below. In the dictionary N.M. Tereshchenko, another synonym for the same concept is presented - pun (“landmark”, “sign”), a derivative of which the verb, punots, means “use something as a guide”.

This work was supported by state contract No. 24ok-2905/2014 dated July 3, 2014 “Archival and field studies of the orientation system in the space of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug” and RSF grant No. 14-18-01882 “Mobility in the Arctic: Ethnic Traditions and Technological Innovations ”(headed by Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.V. Golovnev).

Field collections were carried out by E.A. Volzhaninoi (Yamal district), R.Kh. Rakhimov and the author of this article (Nadymsky and Tazovsky districts). I express my gratitude to the teachers of the Nenets language of the Taz boarding school M.Kh. Salinder and T.D. Zhelkaidarova, an employee of the Scientific Center for the Study of the Arctic S.E. Serpivo and philologist N.I. Vella for help in editing Nenets words and expressions.

natural landmarks

The longer a Nenets lives in one area, the more detailed knowledge of the area, its landmarks, landscape outlines he has. A thorough knowledge of their land is supported by a very fractional toponymic baggage. Moreover, these names quite often indicate the specifics of a geographical object, its distinctive features and qualities, for example: Nuna-yakha - a calm river, Paravy-seda - a burnt hill, Hasro - a swampy lake, etc. In some cases, as G.P. Kharyuchi, the toponym carries an important warning for a person: ilena ya (“living earth”, i.e. quagmire); Labatsgane Nado (Collapsing Mountain); You must be a khanonda (Wolf's hill or "a hill where there are a lot of wolves").

From the statements of the Nenets: “Every lake, every stream, every river, every hillock has its own name. And every mound, every river - they are different from each other” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district]. When communicating with one of the reindeer herders, who was forced to explore new landscapes due to the transfer to work in another reindeer farm, we asked him to give specific distinctive features of the surrounding rivers. The following answer was given: “There are no identical rivers, they are all different. This river, where we are now standing, is narrow, and the previous one was wider. If you get to that river, you can’t find a ford on it everywhere, and it’s impossible to find a crossing there even in winter. And here the other side is visible. Even if the rivers are about the same size, they are still different. Let's say that this river and that one, they are a little the same, but there is still something that distinguishes them: soil, trees there ... In one place there may be high banks, in another lower, or in one place there may be moss, and moss in another [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district].

Accordingly, with a detailed knowledge of the terrain, a person can more easily, by a smaller number of visible objects, determine his location in conditions of limited visibility (night, blizzard, fog, etc.).

In the general array of the landscape, there are always the most prominent points that distinguish this area from the surrounding ones and make it easier to remember. Often these are the highest objects visible at a great distance - hills (seda, sitting), hills or ridges (khoi): “For example, hills. The hills are different - low, high. There are big hills. Kilometers for 10-15 can be seen. In three kilometers it will be visible - just see that it is visible. Such hills are gray. Everything is sitting. They have their own names. You can say Si "iv seda - seven such hills nearby. Or Yahasakha" - these are twins. They all have names, so that's how we navigate. In some places within a radius of 10 by 20 km in one place, and in others not at all” [PM Rakhimova, Tazovsky district].

With a high concentration of hills in one place, their certain noticeable qualities already come to the fore: completely naked, with a tree on top, double, etc. Sometimes hills can have even more outstanding features: “Sideyakha has two sacred hills. They seem to be growing. One hill is visible all the time, and the other - only in the evening. It is directly noticeable how she appears” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district]. The relevance of the tundra heights as landmarks is confirmed by the phrase that is present as an example of the use of the word khoy (“hill”) in the dictionary of N.M. Tereshchenko: Hoim "puno" uadm ("I used the hill as a guide").

In the southwestern part of the YNAO, the projections of the Ural Mountains (Uarka "Pe") are an excellent high-altitude landmark, which in clear weather are visible for many tens of kilometers. For example, for the Nenets of the Baidaratskaya tundra, such a well-distinguished object from a long distance is Mount Baidarata-Saurei, located in the upper reaches of the river. Baidarat. For its characteristic profile, the Nenets sometimes call it in Russian "triangle". In the book by V.P. Evladov gives a story about a long journey of Nenets sea hunters on a boat. When, after the Buri Nenets, they finally managed to approach the shore, an unfamiliar area appeared before them and they were able to determine their location only thanks to their knowledge of the mountain spurs of the Urals: “They began to heat tea. Suddenly - a sled on five reindeer. We see - Zyryanin with a boy. He doesn’t speak Samoyed, he doesn’t know Russian either, and we don’t know either. He only replied that the holy stone of Minisei was nearby. The fog cleared. Minisey is visible. We got under the Urals! [Evladov, 1992, p. 42]. On a large expanse of the Yamal Peninsula, a good visual reference point is the Yamal-Khoi Ridge, a north-south elevation on the watershed between the Kara and Ob water systems. A similar distant landmark (a chain of hills on the horizon) was apparently used by the Nenets guides of A. Schrenk in the Arkhangelsk

tundra: “The open view here has no boundaries, as on the surface of the sea, and finds an obstacle only in the fog blue in the distance, where a barely perceptibly undulating line, disappearing into the pale sky, here and there marks the upper line of the hills and serves as a true compass for Samoyed on this tundra ocean" [Shrenk, 1855, p. 253].

We also note that all the above hills are also used by the Nenets for surveying the area. Since they are best seen at a far distance, a coherent system of mutual arrangement of hills is formed in the memory of the Nenets, with knowledge of the relative height of objects, the maximum distance at which they are visible, the features of the outline from different directions, etc. It is no coincidence that reindeer herders prefer to occupy dominant heights with good visibility for their camps.

When orienting, the Nenets pay extremely great attention to rivers. It is the rivers that are the starting point from which the study of an unfamiliar area begins: “In a new place, you first remember the rivers. When you drive in an unfamiliar place, you cross a river, you already see what is where, what banks are steep, overgrown, sandy. On that side, in the south of Taimyr, there are banks-rifts, there the rocky ground already begins ”[PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district].

It is important to note that, when memorizing, tundra people concentrate primarily on the structural system of the river basin, the general direction of the flow of its watercourses relative to the cardinal points. The specific pattern of the riverbed is seen by them, as a rule, very schematically. In particular, this approach is typical for reindeer herders, but, oddly enough, is found to a significant extent among the Nenets fishermen. When those, at our request, drew a system of channels and islands of the lower reaches of the river. The pelvis along which they constantly move, the outlines of the earth and the bends of the channels were also depicted in many respects schematically, without attention to detail. At the same time, on the spot, the same fishermen are well versed in the complex system of channels, they know all the dangerous places.

The question, of course, requires a more detailed analysis, but already at this level of acquaintance with it, a significant difference is noticeable in the very principle of remembering river systems and the level of detail of this knowledge between the Nenets and representatives of the typical taiga peoples of Siberia (Khanty, Mansi, Evenki, etc.). The same is evidenced by the observation of one of the researchers of Evenk ethnography A. Lavrilye: “Wishing to help them (Evenks. - V.A.) orient themselves, I, in accordance with the system of orientation of my own culture, pointed them to the four cardinal points and the highest points , but they answered me: "We are not interested in either starting points or mountains, we are interested in rivers!". In addition, I noticed that they, regardless of belonging to one or another generation, very quickly found on the map large and small rivers that interested them, just by the configuration of the flow (highlighted by me. - V.A.) ... I noticed that adults and children, men and women often willingly repeated, like a multiplication table, the connection of rivers and rivers covering an area far exceeding the territory that they happened to pass in their nomadic life. This kind of information can be easily found in other ethnographic works on taiga peoples (see, for example: [Kulemzin, 1998, 2000]).

For comparison, none of the interviewed tundra dwellers expressed confidence that he would be able to identify on the map any river from the environment known to him only by the general flow pattern. In order to start working with a topographic map, reindeer herders, as a rule, needed to see where a nearby large river was located on it and some other landmark on it (a settlement, a tributary, etc.). After that, they could already correctly indicate its tributaries and their current location.

There are interesting nuances associated with orienteering along rivers. As you know, the course of a river is usually winding and the predominant direction of the channel can not always be clearly seen, seeing only a small river section in front of you. Nevertheless, exceptions occasionally come across - rivers with a pronounced direction from source to mouth. Such reservoirs become not only good landmarks for the Nenets (as an object that stands out from the general environment and as a direction indicator), but also convenient roads in winter, since you can constantly drive along them along the channel, without the need to go ashore to cut large loops . For such rivers, the Nenets have a special name: “Some rivers, like this, they got to the top - we have such a direct river Khutina there - you can see the mouth there, far away. You won't see other rivers like that. And here indeed, the father showed. Here, hutina means "straight river". And there is another, Haralyang (“winding.” - V. A.), endless

nye turns there. This is really haralyang. It’s better not to go down to it even on deer. So, you go along the river. God forbid you go down to it - you won’t get out of there - this is a natural haralyang ”[PM Rakhimova, Tazovsky district]. In general, in the territories of the “bare” tundra, for inexperienced, little-known people, it was the rivers that became the main roads.

The “format” of information about watercourses stored in the memory of the tundra Nenets, and how this information is used by them, can be illustrated by the following statement of one reindeer breeder: “At the rivers, you still need to know how many tributaries flow! Without this, you will be lost. But when I drive in the dark, I think: yeah, the first one is left, the second one I have to pass and the third one, and at the fourth one I have a chum at the fork, where it parted with a large river. And I definitely hit” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district]. It is significant that the expression "count the rivers" was used by almost all the tundra Nenets in their stories about how they navigate in a complex network of small rivers.

The author shares the opinion of ethnographers K.V. Istomin and M.J. Dwyer, who, analyzing materials on the ethnography of the Nenets of the Tazovsky district, suggested that it was the rivers that constituted the main axis of the mental map of the Nenets reindeer herders. Moreover, in this mental map of the Nenets, the researchers identified two hierarchical levels: 1) the upper one, represented by a map of hydraulic systems, where objects and territories are linked to neighboring watercourses; 2) the lower one, which presents a detailed map of any territory limited by several neighboring hydraulic systems. The reindeer herders themselves also feel this two-level knowledge of the area, where the upper level (“knowledge of the rivers”) is publicly available and allows you to move around the territory without difficulty, and the lower level (“knowledge of the land”) contains detailed knowledge of the landscape, only by owning which you can practice on any or a section of the tundra by reindeer herding. Similar information was obtained in the course of our field research.

Lakes can serve as a good reference point for the Nenets. This is especially true for areas where they are concentrated in large numbers. The Taz Nenets spoke about the specifics of remembering a place in one of such areas (the southern part of Taimyr): “When you fly in a helicopter, there are a lot of lakes there. Like this water, it is solid everywhere. The lakes are also not the same: some stretch for several kilometers, on others there are islands - on the edge, in the middle there is an island, even two islands. And then you go, remember that if you have passed the river, then there should be a lake” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district].

Lakes remain landmarks in winter. Taking into account their heavy snow coverage, smoothing of the contours of the relief, limited visibility in the conditions of the polar night, it is sometimes difficult for experienced tundra dwellers to determine their location with the help of these objects. Sometimes, for clarification, reindeer herders resort to the old tried and tested method: to feel the snow with the back of the trochee, which, according to tradition, has a metal tip in the form of a spear with a blunt point. In the same way, they determine their location in the river bay.

There are some other distinct landscape landmarks that the Nenets use with success. For example, the last groups of larches on the border of the forest-tundra with the tundra (such places are well known to the Nenets), many kilometers of wide strips of shrubs on the watersheds of rivers, the coastline of the sea or bays. Let us cite as an example one of the statements of the tundra dwellers: “Here, near the upper reaches of the rivers, we have a strip of alder forest - 10-15 kilometers wide. It seems to divide: to the north, the bare tundra begins, and to the south, the forest tundra. If you are driving and saw that the alder forest has gone, it is already in the direction of Taz, and further, behind the alder forest, the rivers have already gone towards Messo-Yakha. You can't go wrong here which way to go. A person, if he has lived all his life in the tundra, he already knows all these “tracking places”” [Pm Adaeva, Tazovsky district]. The shrub is also the main identification mark of the shore when it is in the snow-covered waters of the sea or bay. The Nenets, unsure of their ability to correctly navigate the icy expanses, prefer to move, if possible, within sight of the coastline of the bushes.

To a certain extent, the Nenets also use ravines as landmarks. They are most noticeable in open tundra. One of the forest-tundra reindeer herders, in particular, drew attention to this: “I went to see my wife, I have her from Nakhodka. They already have a bare tundra there, there is practically no bush there, so I remembered it. They differ in that they have to memorize over the hills, rivers and ravines” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky District]. AT

In general, knowledge about ravines is more relevant for building a rational, safe route: “If you don’t know the place, you can climb into extra ravines.”

A habitual action for the Nenets is to memorize trees or shrubs of an unusual shape (with a fallen trunk, “like an eagle’s nest”, with a curved shape, etc.) or standing apart from others, since such an original object is also a good sign of the area: “Suddenly there is a tree There is one thing - the best option.

The materials of the study suggest that rivers and uplands are the universal and primary natural landmarks for the tundra Nenets. It is significant that only rivers (streams) and hills appeared in the drawing of the area, which was made for V.N. Chernetsov, the Yamal Nenets, when they advised him about a trip to the mouth of the river. Tiutei-yaha. It is curious that the hills in this picture were depicted in profile, thereby demonstrating their recognizable outlines [Istochniki..., 1987, p. 98].

Returning to the above K.V. Istomin and M.J. Dwyer to the Nenets system of two-level knowledge of the area, it must be said that sometimes the transition from the upper level (“knowledge of the rivers”) to the lower (“knowledge of the land”) Nenets go through on their own, by trial and error. In cases when a person without outside help is forced to develop a new territory for reindeer grazing, he systematically studies it in detail for several years, selecting optimal routes empirically. Before migrating to a new place, the reindeer herder makes walks for 10-15 km to assess the quality of pastures, determine convenient river crossings and a place to stay: “Well, I usually go to those places, before casting, I first walked: you get to a new place, you must first look. You look where the river is, where it flows into, you look at the deer crossing - it should be shallow there, and so that there is not such a bush along the banks. I also marked myself there” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky District]. The “marks” mentioned at the end of the phrase are special landmarks on the ground, a detailed description of which is presented in the next section.

In conclusion of this section, we will give one more eloquent quote demonstrating how the tundra people operate with their knowledge of landmarks on the way: “Before the departure, the whole road is already in the head. You remember hills, rivers. If you go, you don’t think close, you think far away (emphasis added by me. - V.A.). A hill, or a river, or some noticeable hillock should appear. Everyone already knows the name of the rivers. You count the tributaries of the rivers. Especially in the dark: “Yeah, cross the river to the east”” [PM Rakhimova, Tazovsky district].

artificial landmarks

This section will present artificial, including specially made, landmarks that were established by the Nenets themselves, and those that were built by other people (mainly industrial and infrastructure facilities).

Directly connected with the installation of road markers (beacons) in the Nenets language are the verbs tyuts - “set milestones” (on the road); pyada (s) - “arrange milestones” (by sticking bushes or branches into the ground or into the snow along one side of the road to mark the path); uabta(s) - “to plant”, “to seat” [Tereshchenko, p. 304, 434, 606]. The traditional conventional signs on the ground used in the tundra themselves can be divided into two categories: just landmarks (ya "nenadumbava -" land mark "or sekhery nenadumbava -" road mark ") and landmarks - direction indicators (sekhery tu" uy).

The first category of labels is the most diverse. Tundroviks can, as a guide, stick a felled bush upside down into the snow (“branches do not grow upside down”), install an antler, a stick, tie several branches in the form of a “chumik”. In some cases, a bright fabric or other material is tied to the marks to increase visibility.

Such signs are installed mainly: at the exits from the main road; crossroads; the border of a forest or shrub, marking the beginning of a cut route; the place of the future parking lot, at the beginning of a narrow channel, which is the exit from a large water body; sometimes - on the road itself, if there is a danger that it will be heavily swept; at river crossings. Some Nenets clarified that the markers are placed mainly for orientation at night. In general, in a well-known area, especially where there is a good overview and / or a large number of natural landmarks, the installation of man-made beacons is usually rather limited and is used only to inform people following about the direction of their movement or the place of the camp. The Nenets, who put marks in such conditions so as not to get lost,

according to the general opinion, either completely inexperienced, or those who are not able to navigate from birth, - yokhoborta. From the story of a young girl who went to visit relatives in the forest-tundra: “They say to me: “Why are you putting marks? Settlement, or what?”” [PM Rakhimova, Tazovsky district]. Many of the inhabitants of the forest-tundra claimed that they did not need man-made landmarks at all in their places: “We didn’t put any marks along the way - there are roads” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district].

Nevertheless, in landscapes that are unusual for them, the Nenets more often turn to man-made road landmarks. So, in the forested area, tundra people sometimes use notches on tree trunks or moss laid on branches. One of the elderly reindeer herders told how in his youth, together with other young Nenets, he was sent to work in the northern regions of the tundra that were unfamiliar to them: We were young, we traveled, harvested alder and transported it to teams of fishermen. Every 50 meters they put pokes so that one could see the other from one” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district]. The above example most likely cannot be attributed to the traditional option of setting landmarks, as evidenced by the use by the informant of the Russian word in the name of the process: poke uabtambava (“poke to set”).

A special system of road landmarks with the same function has developed among the Forest Nenets. We briefly present it here only for comparison with the tundra. As the Forest Nenets said, all their marks of this kind perform one function - they indicate the close presence of a road or its branches. They use tree tops hewn in a special way (nekkal, nekkal), moss laid on trees (imp nya-vako, “moss head”) and ordinary hacks on trunks (schapma) as road landmarks. Nekley is a mark when only a “cap” is left at the top of a tree, all lower branches are cut off. Another variant of such a mark is called nekkal - in the middle part of the crown of a tree, branches break off on both sides, so that in the end a figure-eight silhouette remains: “A large pine tree is made on the nekkal on the road. When 40 ° frost, the trochee touched a little - they themselves fly off, small ones. While you are driving, you hit, he rides from behind - he hits from the other side, the third hit - that's it, the hat appeared small ”[PM Adaeva, Nadymsky district]. Moss tags are the most short-lived, especially if they are simply laid in the forks of branches or hung on knots. There is also a more durable option, when a small tree is cut down and the moss is squeezed into a stump crack.

The second category, pointers, as the name implies, carries additional information about the direction in which you need to move. Three similar versions of the road mark were recorded: installed inclined sticks, a fire brand stuck in, and a deer skull impaled on a pole. All this can be called in Nenets sekhery tu "uy ("road sign").

In the first case, the pointer is a set of sticks installed in a special order at the place where the chum (myads, “monster”) stood or at the turn from the main road. Most often, these are three to five pegs from several tens of centimeters to half a meter high, stuck in ascending order in one line and tilted in the direction where the people left: “A man said in the tundra: one small stick will be at an angle, the second will be longer and the third will be even longer - indicates the direction where the person left. You have arrived at the parking lot. Look, you can't see anything. Where did the person say? He will put sticks, three poles, and these poles show the way, where the road has gone. The lowest - 20-30 centimeters tall sticks out. And tilted, as if they were walking like this” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district]. Pegs are made from improvised material, usually wood, but there are other options. For example, V.P. Evladov described deer antler sticks.

Marks in the form of inclined sticks are also mentioned in other well-known sources on the ethnography of the Nenets. So, Yu.I. Kushelevsky wrote in the 19th century: “Some Samoyeds leave on chugors (parking places. - V.A.) several sticks stuck in the snow inclined to the direction where their new chugor should be, and on these sticks they carve their tamgas ( signs), by which they will find out whose anas (Argish. - V.A.) stood on a chugor. The above information about personal tamgas suggests that this method of transmitting information was not only widely used, but could also be addressed both to a specific person and to indefinite, rather conditional addressees.

An essentially similar sign is the abandoned fire smut, which, due to its contrasting color, is perfectly visible against the background of snow. The description of this Nenets mark is also found in the literature: “When leaving, the shepherd will not forget the most conspicuous firebrand of the post-

twist so that it will show the way of the herd. If there are trees nearby, place it between the knots. Strictly adhere to the indicated direction - and catch up with the herd" [Salinder, 1987, p. 40]. A deer skull sometimes performed a similar function of a signpost in an abandoned camp: “They can still put the deer’s head on a stick and turn it in the direction they left. She doesn’t have a special name, that she is a mark, just a head, and that’s all” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district].

According to G.P. Kharyuchi, another conventional sign among the Nenets, which served to attract attention, was a piece of cloth tied to a chorea (labats). The Taz Nenets told about the use of a fire built on a hill as a signal for lost people. Nowadays, for the same purpose, sometimes a plastic bag tied to a high branch is set on fire or an electric light bulb connected to a generator is attached to an installed pole, flashlights are waved, etc.

In addition to special waymarks, some stationary objects related to the life of the Nenets themselves could be good landmarks on the ground. The most common of them, roads, will be considered separately due to their specifics. The following most important landmarks are sacred places (khebidya ya) and cemeteries (halmer): “The Nenets remember the area by these sacred places, they know what is there ... Then, by burial places, by cemeteries. Previously, the Nenets buried by birth, and they always ask the way, if someone does not know. To them: here, there will be a cemetery of this kind along the way, then there will be a sacred place (there is also a mark - or bones, or something else, larches). And that’s how they found their way, they remembered it” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky District]. The specifics of the location of the Nenets sacred places - away from the beaten paths - in itself contributed to the fact that people who had gone astray went out to them: “Previously, sacred places stood aside from the main roads, there were no such roads as now. They served as landmarks, they were used when you got lost” [PM Volzhanina, Yamal district]. It is important that sacred places and cemeteries are usually located on hills, many of them remain visible even in winter.

Nevertheless, both sacred places and cemeteries, according to the Nenets, can pose a supernatural threat to a traveler passing by, and even more so to a traveler who has stopped next to them. For this reason, knowledge of the location of nearby sacred places and cemeteries was often used to avoid their close passage during the trip: “You must go to the point, and back you must follow the same trail. Not round, because there are many sacred places. If you go around the circle, then something will happen to you. Either the Buran breaks down, or you get sick. Therefore, there must be a guide” [PM Rakhimova, Tazovsky district].

The supplies of firewood left by the Nenets in the tundra and the seasonal camping of sleds could serve as a good guide, especially if bright materials were used to cover the load in the sleigh. Stacked firewood and sleds were also usually located on hills, therefore they were not covered with snow for a long time and were visible at a considerable distance.

The Nenets also successfully use artificial landmarks set by the alien population. The history of existence of some of them is already very long. In particular, in the book by B.M. Zhitkov, a memorial sign, well known to the local Nenets, was erected on the Yamal Peninsula by members of the expedition S.G. Malygin 1736-1739: “The Samoyeds consider this sign to be the work of the “turman” (navigator Ivanov) and therefore call it Thurman-yumba”. Modern tundra dwellers are already faced with a wide variety of alien objects that serve as reliable landmarks for them at a long distance: trigopoints (padlada pya), drilling rigs, cell towers (especially if there is lighting at the top), large settlements (primarily emanating from them electric light - harad "harp [Kharyuchi, 2012, p. 37]), gas flares, pipelines, various other industrial structures, roads and railways, abandoned vehicles, beams, etc. There are also local attractions, such as , border radar dishes in the vicinity of the village of Gyda: "We have a "sacred" landmark hill - these are the Gydan army radars. It appears - everything, you go to it and you will never get lost" [PM Rakhimova, Tazovsky district].

Leaving aside the negative impact of active industrial development on the traditional life and culture of the Nenets, it should be noted that in such conditions orientation in the area is greatly simplified: “And the villages are now shining. You know approximately where Za-Polyarka is, you look in that direction - there are Tazovsky and Gazsale. If there are a lot of lights, then there is a road, a track. Only a stupid one gets lost” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky District].

Nenets roads

The road has always been the first landmark and guiding thread that led in the right direction. In the past, before the start of the industrial development of the North of Western Siberia, there was a rich network of sled roads in the tundra - winter (sekhery or shekhery) and summer (not without reason). Due to long-term active use, summer ones remain clearly visible in the tundra for many decades.

In the Taz tundra, near the right bank of the Lower Taz, a local landmark has survived to this day - the “Vauli Nenyanga Road” (Vauli-Nedarma). The road with a length of about 65 km leads along the banks of the river. Taz from the lake. Nenyang something to the west-north-west to the river. Shchuchya (channel of the Messoyakha river). On the way, it crosses several large rivers, enters the now abandoned village of Yarika. If the route coincides with similar old roads, modern reindeer herders use them with pleasure, since they are laid in the most convenient way, bypassing a difficultly rugged landscape, and still remain relatively clear of shrubbery. It is significant that the well-worn summer roads are all of an old origin: “It was not without reason that they were even earlier, in those years when grandfathers still lived - when they carried timber, mail, during the years of Soviet power ... And before the revolution, the Nenets also traveled far” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district].

Assessing the high rationality of the route of the old roads, the Nenets emphasize that the people who laid them were distinguished by a special talent: “Some kind of smart man struck, that’s it, it’s necessary that the road passes along the tops of the rivers, where it’s straighter, where it’s better to cut the rivers” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky district]. By the way, remarks of the same kind regarding road pioneers are common among other northern peoples. Thus, the ethnographer A. Lavrilier writes about the nomadic Evenks that among them “occasionally there are people with an inventive mind and with a high status: they know how to open new paths and new territories, cutting through the forest with an ax shorter paths than ordinary nomadic roads. If other nomads like this path, it will soon become a new regular road.

In the past, Nenets roads could reach considerable lengths. The stories of their grandfathers about long-distance trips to cities and villages located in the modern Yamalo-Nenets (Obdorsk), Khanty-Mansiysk (Berezov, Surgut) districts, Krasnoyarsk Territory and other regions have been preserved in the memory of reindeer herders. According to the Nenets, in those days (the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century) there was no need to specifically break the road to distant places, due to the good road traffic: “Before, my father traveled far. He did not need to know the way - there were a lot of people there, there were deer around the road. Transport was only reindeer in winter” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky District]. One of such well-trodden routes connecting Gy-dan with Surgut was described by B.N. Gorodkov: “The roads to Surgut run first along the lower reaches of the Pur. To r. Tailovaya, a tributary of the Nadym, within the forest-tundra, Samoyeds move in different ways, then they stick to the same road, since they have to use the long-standing clearings in the forests. This path, which is also used by the inhabitants of the lower reaches of the Pur and Taz, is only a winter road, laid mainly along treeless strongholds and lakes. In wooded areas, it looks like narrow clearings.

In the forest and forest-tundra, due to the specifics of the landscape, the road in general often became the main reference point for movement. From the statement of a forest-tundra Nenets: “I traveled and oriented myself only along the road. Elsewhere, deer will not go there. A deer will not go without a road either” [PM Adaeva, Tazovsky District]. Clearings cut in dense bushes (pe-dara "ersei) became narrow corridors through which the Nenets and their reindeer herds passed in their nomad camps.

Conclusion

The navigational knowledge of the Nenets includes a wealth of information on local geography and nature, experience in orienteering using a whole system of various techniques, proven algorithms of actions in case of extreme situations that arise along the way, and the skills of putting all this into practice brought to automaticity. Knowledge of natural landmarks, the use of artificial signs, the technique of their memorization are the basis of the direct practice of orientation.

One of the most important results of this study is the conclusion about the identification of rivers and hills (hills, mountains, watershed ranges) as universal and primary natural landmarks for the tundra Nenets. The former, in fact, represent for residents

the tundra is a kind of coordinate network, to which it is convenient to link the location of other objects; in winter, they often became, if not the shortest, but reliable roads. By the way, the simplified form of memorizing the configuration of the flow of watercourses is also consistent with this - only in general terms, without details. The second landmarks, hills, like landmarks, visible at a great distance, allow you to “complete” the whole picture of the surrounding landscape in your imagination, and, moreover, are valuable in that they themselves can be used to survey the area.

REFERENCES

Sources

Field materials V.N. Adaeva, 2014 (Nadymsky, Tazovsky districts of the YNAO).

Field materials E.A. Volzhanina, 2014 (Yamal district of YNAO).

Field materials R.Kh. Rakhimova, 2014 (Nadymsky, Tazovsky districts of the YNAO).

Literature

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Evladov V.P. Through the tundra of Yamal to the White Island: Expedition to the Far North of the Yamal Peninsula in 1928-1929. Tyumen: IPOS SO RAN, 1992. 282 p.

Zhitkov B.M. Yamal Peninsula. SPb.: Type. MM. Stasyulevich: 1913. X. 350 p.

Sources on the ethnography of Western Siberia. Tomsk: Publishing House of TGU, 1987. 284 p.

Kulemzin V.M. Spatial orientation of hunting peoples // Siberia in the panorama of millennia: Proceedings of the Intern. Symp.: In 2 vols. T. 2. Novosibirsk: Izd. IAET SO RAN, 1998. S. 242-244.

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Tyumen, IPOS SB RAS [email protected]

The paper presents a set of earth-based natural and artificial landmarks used by the Nenets, together with practice of their learning and use. Subject to consideration being a double-level landscape knowledge among the tundra Nenets, suggested by K.V. Istomin and M.J. Dwyer, where the upper level allows moving easily across the territory, while the lower one contains a detailed landscape knowledge necessary for reindeer breeding. The author draws a conclusion that for the tundra Nenets rivers and hills stayed the top priority and universal natural landmarks.

Spatial orientation, tundra Nenets, north landscapes, conventional signs, roads.

Artificial real estate objects depending on the purpose. Objects of artificial origin. Debris blown by the wind

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