Essay on social studies. Topic: “Economic systems and their functions. The concept of economics A brief message about economics
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Economy
What is an economy? The economy is a balanced way of doing business, a set, a certain set of rules for doing business in the production system, as well as in the sphere of distribution of goods and benefits, exchange and consumption. The term "economy" was first traced in the works of Xenophon before Christ. e. Xenophon called economics a natural science. But Aristotle contrasted two sciences: chrematistics and economics. Chrematistics is a science that studies human activity in the field of relationships with profit.
Modern philosophy considers the economy as a balance of relations on the part of society, associated with such a concept as value. The main task of the economy is the constant creation of conditions that can ensure normalized life and the existence of society in general. The economy, as an economic activity, makes it possible to satisfy human interest in resources, which, at the moment, are limited.
The economy has different forms of manifestation:
1. Market
2. Administrative-command
3. Traditional
4. Mixed economy
Economic growth is the production of products that has undergone an increase in volume over a certain period of time.
Factors that lead to economic growth:
1. A large volume of quality workers.
2. Efficiency of fixed capital.
3. The volume of natural resources, their quality
4. Efficient management
5. Latest technology
For the first time, signs of economic growth were noticed in England, at the end of the 18th century. The great industrial revolution led to an economic boom at that time. Then the income of one citizen increased by an average of 10 times. Today, the most underdeveloped countries are forced to survive on a daily income equivalent to 1 US dollar (with US price matching)
Some analysts argue that economic growth could cause a worldwide collapse in natural resources. Other critics argue that many civilizations are known to have disappeared due to the fact that the surrounding ecosystem failed to provide enough resources for the growth of these civilizations.
The economy implies the most complex all-encompassing complex capable of creating conditions for the life of an individual and society as a whole.
The main function of the economy can be called the systematic creation of goods necessary for human existence, which help society develop. In other words, the economy acts as a tool for satisfying human needs.
The first mention of the term "economy" can be traced back to the writings of Aristotle, who saw the economy as opposed to chrematistics - the science of enrichment, the ability to accumulate property and wealth.
Forms of the economy
- traditional;
- market;
- administrative-command;
- mixed.
The traditional economy was followed during the pre-industrial society. Today, the traditional economy is characteristic only of the agricultural zones of the underdeveloped countries of Africa, South America and Asia.
The market economy is based on the principles of commodity production (free enterprise), that is, in this form of economy, the key factor in the distribution of goods is not the state, but buyers and suppliers (producers) of goods and services.
The administrative-command (planned) economy is characterized by centralized planning of financial activities. This form of economy was inherent in the socialist countries, it existed, in particular, in the USSR, the DPRK and Cuba, but today such an economic system has practically outlived its usefulness. A mixed economy is a combination of private and public or state ownership of the means of production. Such a mixture is typical for advanced countries that preach democratic socialism.
The mixed economic system enables individual entrepreneurs to independently make decisions in financial matters, but the state (society) still has priority in these matters.
The economic sphere is a fundamental sphere in the life of society, since all the processes taking place in this society depend on it.
It is difficult to underestimate the importance of the economy in the life of society throughout the history of mankind. It is the economy that predetermines the material issue of human existence, providing it with everything necessary: food, clothing, housing, etc. The economy is designed to meet the needs of not only a person, but also entire organizations (enterprises), and society as a whole.
Since ancient times, states have faced the task of meeting the needs of their peoples, and in order to solve this problem, it was necessary to develop the economic sphere. To do this, more and more natural resources and territories were involved in economic activity, which helped to maintain economic stability in one way or another.
However, technical and scientific progress did not stand still, and over time, such an economic strategy ceased to be effective, a certain ceiling was reached, limiting the possibilities for further development. Progress in the scientific and technical sphere gave impetus to the intensive development of the economic sphere. New, more progressive approaches to the use of resources have been developed, which has made their consumption much more rational and efficient. The modernization of the economic sphere has taught a person to achieve maximum results, while spending as little as possible of his available resources.
It should be noted that a developed economy has a positive effect on the spiritual component of society. Economic stability gives people the opportunity not only to accumulate, but also to spend money on spiritual benefits: entertainment, development of their cultural values. Otherwise, people lose confidence in the future, start looking for new ways to earn money, which almost always leads to an increase in the level of crime sooner or later.
SECTION I. INTRODUCTION
1. Economic man and rational economic behavior.
2. Subjects and objects of economic relations.
3. Interpretation of the subject of economic theory by various schools of economists.
4. Similarities and differences in economic theory, economics, political economy.
5. What is the difference between normative and positive economics?
6. The subject of micro- and macroeconomics, their relationship.
7. Principles of economic organization and the subject of economic theory.
8. Methods of economic analysis.
9. Correlation of concepts: principles, patterns, laws in economic theory.
10. Scientific abstractions and economic categories.
11. Economic and mathematical modeling as a method of scientific knowledge.
12. Scientific hypotheses and their verification in an economic experiment.
13. Economic thinking: role and place in the structure of public consciousness.
14. Increasing importance of economic policy in the context of reforms.
15. Logical assumptions and errors in scientific economic analysis.
16. The structure of economic goals and their relationship.
17. Causal dependencies in the economy and their reflection in economic theory.
18. Changing the real economy and the development of economic theory: feature and relationship.
19. Economic theories of the ancient world (China, India, Greece, Egypt, Rome).
20. History of the development of economic theory. Scientific schools.
21. Development of domestic political economy.
22. Outstanding Russian economists.
23. Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Economics.
24. Non-traditional interpretations of the subject and method of economic theory.
25. Philosophical foundations of economic theory.
26. Contradictions and their role in socio-economic development.
27. Stages and phases of economic development.
28. Modern civilization and its information stage of development.
SECTION II. GENERAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPANY
1. Rarity of goods and production.
2. Motives and incentives for human production activities.
3. Methods of combining material and personal factors of production.
4. Problems of production efficiency in a market economy.
5. Substitution of factors and the problem of production flexibility.
6. Sustainability of production and its impact on society.
7. Information and change in the nature of the production function in the context of scientific and technological revolution.
8. Technological choice and ecology.
9. Fight for limited resources.
10. Economic Law of Conserved Marginal Returns and Increasing Additional Costs.
11. The law of diminishing returns and how to overcome it.
12. Material production and non-productive sphere.
13. The role and importance of state property in the market economy.
14. Significance of the principles of private property and freedom of enterprise for a market economy.
15. Advantages and disadvantages of various options for the privatization process in Russia.
16. The problem of optimizing the structures of forms of ownership in the transition to a market economy.
17. Relationships of economic behavior and property relations.
SECTION III. BASES OF THE THEORY OF MARKET ECONOMY
1. Features of commodity-money relations in the conditions of the Asian mode of production.
2. Formation and development of the commodity economy in Russia.
3. The theory of marginal utility: emergence, essence, development.
4. Money and their role in the economy. Equilibrium in the money market.
5. Inflation: causes and methods of dealing with it.
6. Features of commodity-money relations in the Asian, ancient and feudal modes of production.
7. Money and barter in the modern economy: reasons for using barter.
8. Electronic money and forms of their use.
9. Analysis of the laws of money circulation, formulated by K. Marx and I. Fischer.
10. The law of supply and demand in the system of the market mechanism. Finding a free niche.
11. Elasticity of supply and demand. Factors affecting the elasticity of supply and demand. Engel function.
12. The concept of equilibrium and its stability. Market equilibrium and price equilibrium as a condition for market self-regulation. The effect of a shift in the supply and demand curve.
13. Elasticity of demand and competition of producers.
14. The practical value of the elasticity of demand.
15. Elasticity and structure of taxation.
16. The problem of optimality and general economic equilibrium.
17. Coordinating role of prices.
18. The historical process of understanding the market as an economic phenomenon.
19. The main features of the free (classical) market.
20. Complete and sufficient economic freedom under market conditions.
21. Deformation of the market under the conditions of the command-administrative system.
22. Antitrust legislation of the USA: essence and consequences.
23. Non-price competition.
24. "Invisible hand" and perfect competition.
25. Scarce market: reasons for functioning and consequences.
26. The effectiveness of competitive equilibrium.
SECTION IV. INDIVIDUAL PRODUCTION. ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR OF MANUFACTURERS
1. Development of forms and internal structure of property relations.
2. The origin and world history of entrepreneurship: the problems of entrepreneurship in the writings of prominent economists.
3. Advantages and disadvantages of organizational and legal forms of entrepreneurship.
4. The essence of entrepreneurship and its role in the socio-economic development of society.
5. Entrepreneurial type of behavior, commercial and self-supporting methods of managing: problems of interconnection and development.
6. Goals, main functions and specific tasks of the entrepreneur.
7. Venture entrepreneurship: role in the modern economy and development problems.
8. State entrepreneurship in a market economy.
9. Lease relations: world experience and development prospects in Russia.
10. Privatization of enterprises in the context of Russia's transition to a market economy: concepts, main stages and forms, implementation practice and problems.
11. World experience and current trends in privatization processes abroad.
12. Shareholding: world experience, Russian realities and problems.
13. Topical issues of joint venture development in Russia.
14. Small business: characteristics, advantages, foreign experience and problems of formation in Russia.
15. The origins of entrepreneurship and its development in Russia in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
16. Compliance with ethical standards as a condition for the development of civilized entrepreneurship and social progress.
17. Management: the evolution of scientific schools and modern concepts.
18. The main functions of management and their implementation in the management of the company.
19. Organizational structures of company management: world experience and current trends.
20. Business plan as the basis for the success of entrepreneurial activity.
21. National style of management.
22. Business strategy of the company and its evolution.
23. Price discrimination.
24. Price and non-price competition.
25. Japan's methods of penetration into the US car market.
26. Japanese and American models of management.
27. Business plan of the company and features of planning in a market economy.
28. Market segmentation and consumer research.
30. How do the concepts of “capital-thing” and “capital-relationship” relate?
31. "Economic man", capitalist, entrepreneur - what is their role in organizing a business?
32. What is the importance of the principles of private property and freedom of enterprise for a market economy?
33. Can depreciation be considered as a source of funds for business development?
34. How does the ratio between sources of short-term and long-term financing change during the economic crisis?
3 5. What impact does the change in the composition of capital have on production efficiency?
36. The secret of primitive accumulation of Russian entrepreneurship.
3 7. Models of circulation in various economic theories.
3 8. Accelerated depreciation of enterprise assets: causes, boundaries, experience of various countries.
39. Marginal costs and their role in shaping the company's strategy.
40. Production costs in the short and long run.
41. Productivity and wage growth.
42. The value of labor productivity growth for an individual firm and the national economy.
43. Total, average and marginal income - the criteria for the effective behavior of the company. profit maximization conditions.
44. The behavior of the firm in conditions of perfect competition and pure monopoly.
45. Ultimate productivity. Law of diminishing returns.
46. Sectoral and regional differentiation of production costs, their essence and dynamics.
47. Functional and personal distribution of income.
48. The price of labor in the labor market.
49. Monopoly profit: essence, sources, boundaries.
50. Economic profit and its role in the effective functioning of the company.
51. Determining the equilibrium wage in a competitive market and in conditions of imperfect competition.
52. Financial intermediaries and their role in a market economy.
53. Problems of formation of market infrastructure in Russia.
54. Financial service: necessity, essence and peculiarities of Russian use.
55. Features of the functioning of exchanges in Russia.
56. Audit as an integral part of business.
57. Necessity and essence of information service.
58. The role of stock exchanges in ensuring the efficiency of the economy.
59. Trading house - "well-forgotten old."
60. Fair and auctions as forms of organization of wholesale trade.
61. Problems of formation of the information and technical environment of entrepreneurship in Russia.
62. Division of labor between industrial and commercial enterprises.
63. Social environment of business and entrepreneurship.
64. Innovative technologies in the infrastructure of entrepreneurial business.
65. Problems of infrastructural support for the activities of foreign firms and joint ventures in Russia.
66. Necessity and essence of business risk insurance.
67. The problem of the formation and withdrawal of land rent in modern agro-industrial production.
68. Revival of absolute rent in Russia.
69. The price of land: the essence, factors that determine the dynamics.
70. Efficiency of exchange between agriculture and industry.
71. Problems of the formation of farming in Russia.
72. State regulation of agricultural production (including the experience of foreign countries).
SECTION V. PUBLIC PRODUCTION, PATTERNS OF THE FUNCTIONING OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY. ECONOMIC POLICY OF THE STATE
1. Criteria of the socio-economic situation of the country: a general description of their level and trends.
2. Differences between international and domestic statistical methods for measuring the gross national product and national income.
3. National market and its equilibrium.
4. Macroeconomic policy of Russia. Problems of the current and imperative model.
5. Problems of regulating the proportions of social production in a market economy.
6. Structural shifts in the Russian economy in transition.
7. Models of equilibrium growth and predictive models of economic development.
8. Post-Keynesian growth models (E. Domara, R. Harrod).
9. Neoclassical growth model R. Solow.
10. Kaldor-Pasinetti Growth and Income Distribution Model.
11. Social equilibrium is a condition for the functioning of the national market system.
12. Types of economic growth: extensive and innovative.
13. Technical progress and economic balance.
14. Factors of economic growth: direct and indirect.
15. Economic growth and environmental problems.
16. Environmental costs in the structure of the input-output balance.
17. Economic growth and quality of life.
18. Economic growth and the ratio of the elements of the market and the social activities of the state.
19. Conversion and economic growth.
20. Environmental problems of conversion.
21. Economic growth and problems of urban development in Russia.
22. Zero economic growth.
23. Alternative approaches to market regulation through the mechanism of influence on aggregate demand.
24. Factors affecting the consumption of the population.
25. Functional purpose and relationship between consumption and savings.
26. The role of investment in the development of macroeconomics.
27. Possibilities of influencing the oscillatory development of the economy of natural, psychological and other factors.
28. Using the principle of acceleration in the analysis of cyclic fluctuations.
29. Keynesian School and Hicks' Theory of the Business Cycle.
30. Statistical accounting of fluctuations in economic indicators, economic models and forecast of economic activity.
31. Changes in the economy of a cyclical (non-cyclical) nature and long-term trends.
32. Structural crisis in Russia and economic recession at the stage of transition to the market. 3 3. Alternative programs for Russia's exit from the crisis.
34. The relationship of cyclical development, the magnitude and structure of unemployment.
35. Various market models (on the examples of individual countries).
36. Methods of analysis of the labor market. segmentation of the labor market.
37. The impact of structural changes in the economy on the labor market.
38. International and domestic labor market.
39. Labor exchanges in Russia (historical aspect).
40. The system of social protection of the unemployed.
41. Monetarist theory of inflation.
42. Problems of the theory of money (1938-1990).
43. The role of money in the classical macroeconomic model.
44. Basic concepts of the money market.
45. Non-banking financial and credit structures and their role in the formation of competitive financial systems.
46. The mechanism of the functioning of the stock exchange.
47. History of the bill.
48. Basic and industrial types of securities: bills, shares, bonds, futures, options, warrants.
49. Relationship between unemployment and inflation: a theoretical discussion around the Phillips curve.
50. Causes of development in the 70s. in the economy of Western countries stagflation and methods of dealing with it.
51. Ability to live in conditions of inflation.
52. Inflation expectations in the economy.
53. Milton Friedman's Money Rule.
54. Methods for calculating inflationary processes in the economy.
5 5. Inflation and income regulation policy.
5 6. Budget deficit and inflation tax.
57. Methods of indexation of incomes of the population in terms of inflation.
58. Reproduction and the system of financial relations.
59. The role and importance of financial leverage and incentives in the regulation of reproduction and the market.
60. Revenues and expenditures of the state budget, their structure and role in the economic growth of production.
61. Fiscal policy and its role in state regulation of the economy.
62. Government spending and aggregate demand.
63. Evolution of types of taxes.
64. Relationship between taxes and subsidies.
65. Local taxes and their role in budgeting.
66. The role of fiscal policy in government regulation.
67. The mechanism for the implementation of fiscal policy during the transition to a socially oriented market economy.
68. Antimonopoly policy of the state.
69. The role of the state in ensuring sustainable monetary circulation.
70. Indirect methods of regulation of economic processes.
71. The boundaries of state intervention in the economy.
72. Experience of state regulation of economic and social processes in the developed countries of the world.
73. State regulation of prices and incomes.
74. Indicative planning in modern conditions.
7 5. The main trends in the formation and distribution of personal incomes of the population and the evolution of the social structure of society.
76. Distribution of income between families and the poverty line, security. Absolute and relative poverty, physical poverty.
77. Social protection systems: genesis and evolution.
7 8. Household as an object of economic and social policy.
79. Welfer (US experience).
80. Lorenz curve as a measure of the degree of uneven redistribution of income.
81. The concept of a socially oriented market: the reason for the development and the consequences of application in various countries.
SECTION VI. WORLD ECONOMY
1. The main features and conditions for the formation of the world economy.
2. Dynamics of economic interdependence of the subjects of the world economy: essence, retrospective and perspective.
3. Goals and factors of the economic movement of the subjects of the world economy.
4. International division of labor as a factor in the integration of subjects into the world economy.
5. Regional markets of the modern world economy: Europe, America, Euro-Asia.
6. Modern aspects of human capital migration.
7. Ethnogenetic and socio-economic factors in the formation of political and economic centers of the modern world.
8. Russia and economic centers of the world economy.
9. Goals and factors of economic growth of the subjects of the world economy.
10. Concepts of regulation of the balance of payments and the exchange rate.
11. Currency restrictions, their impact on the exchange rate.
12. The mechanism of foreign exchange interventions.
13. World gold market. gold auctions.
14. Operations in the eurocurrency markets.
15. Ways to achieve currency convertibility.
16. Forms of international payments.
17. Problems of mutual settlements of the republics of the former USSR.
18. Analysis of Russia's balance of payments.
19. Integration of the CIS countries.
20. Convertible currency of Russia.
21. Economic security of Russia.
"Economy"(from Greek. oikos- home, household, and nomos- rule, knowledge) literally - knowledge about housekeeping, housekeeping, household. The modern use of the term is characterized by its division into meanings:
Economy as an economy- a management system that provides society with material (material) and intangible (spiritual) benefits.
Economics as a science- a science that studies ways to meet the ever-growing needs of society in conditions of limited resources. In other words, it studies the production, distribution and consumption of various goods and services. Economics is a set of specific (narrower and more specialized) economic disciplines: economic statistics, labor economics, etc.
Do not forget that the economy is a subsystem of society (a sphere of public life).
Basic questions of economics:
- What to produce?
- How to produce?
- For whom to produce?
The main problem of the economy- satisfaction of unlimited (constantly growing) needs of people at the expense of limited resources.
Need- this is the need for something to maintain and develop the life of a person and society as a whole.
Needs can arise and change both under the influence of internal motives and under external influence. Satisfaction of needs, in turn, becomes a motive for economic activity.
The means by which needs are satisfied are called good things. There are three categories of benefits:
economic benefits- these are the means necessary to meet the needs of people and available to society in a limited amount. Usually we buy them, that is, in order to acquire economic goods, we have to give up other goods. They also require certain costs to create. Economic goods, for example, are all kinds of goods that we can buy in stores.
free goods- goods that are in the public domain, their consumption is unlimited, does not require us to give up other goods in return. For example, this is the sunshine that we can enjoy on a walk in sunny weather.
public goods combine certain features of the two previous types of goods. These are benefits that are freely available, but the state spends financial resources to create and maintain them. The creation of public goods is one of the economic functions of the state. These include, for example, street lighting.
QUESTIONS:
1. List the four main elements of the structure of economic activity.
ANSWER
The following elements of the structure of economic activity can be listed:
1) production;
2) distribution;
4) consumption.
2. You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Economics as a science". Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.
ANSWER
One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic:
- The concept of economics as a science.
- The main tasks of economic science.
- Subject of research and features of economic science.
- Functions of economics as a science:
- cognitive;
- methodological;
- practical (pragmatic);
- educational;
- ideological.
- microeconomics;
- macroeconomics.
Xenophon (approximately 444-356 BC) - an ancient Greek writer and historian, politician and commander, one of the strategists of the Greek army.
He joined the campaign of Cyrus (401 BC), led the retreat of the Greeks. He was convicted in Athens for high treason. He became close to the Spartan king Agesilaus, began to fight under his command. Then he lived in seclusion on an estate given to him by the Spartans, engaged in literary and historical activities, which was interrupted by the struggle of the Thebans with the Spartans.
A follower of Socrates, which was partly reflected in his philosophical works. His "Memoirs of Socrates", "Apology of Socrates" and other Socratic works convey the essence of the teaching and tell about Socrates himself as a teacher.
Among these works is the treatise "Domostroy", which is also translated as "Economics". It is built in the traditional form of a dialogue between Socrates and the wealthy Athenian Critobulus, and presents Socrates' ideas about the proper management of the household. This treatise is considered the first work on economics. It was Xenophon who first used the term "economy" in a scientific work.
It is a great thing to seize power, but even more difficult - once seized, to keep it for yourself.
One cannot ask the gods for victory in a cavalry battle for those who do not know how to ride.
Cyrus considered it completely absurd if the commander, wanting to give some kind of order, would order as some of the masters do at home: “Let someone go for water” or “Let someone chop wood.” With such orders, everyone just looks at each other, but no one undertakes to carry out the order, everyone is guilty, but no one is ashamed. It was for these reasons that he called by name everyone to whom he gave any order.
Essay Topics:
"The market, which is the pinnacle of individual economic freedom, is at the same time the most severe taskmaster."
(R. Heilbroner)
"The poorest is the one who does not know how to use what he has."
(P. Buast)
"Economics is the art of satisfying unlimited needs with limited resources."
Municipal Educational Institution
Secondary School №6
Intermediate certification
Essay on social studies
Topic:
"Economic systems and their functions"
Completed:
Student 8 "A"
Kournikova Anastasia
Teacher:
1. Introduction
2. concept and structure of economic systems.
3. the main types of economic systems traditional economic system, market system, mixed economic system.
4. comparative analysis of market and mixed economic systems.
5. transition period and market reforms in Russia.
6. conclusion.
7. bibliography.
8. application
Introduction:
In order for the economy of any country to work normally, it is necessary to find a way to coordinate this choice of millions of people.
The variety of ways to coordinate economic life and make decisions on major economic issues depends on the dominant form of ownership in society, the methods of making decisions on the organization of production and distribution of goods, as well as methods of attracting people to economic activity.
In the most general form, there are three ways for society to solve the main issues of the economy: according to long-established customs (by tradition); by issuing instructions and orders "from top to bottom" (by command methods); with the help of the market.
The concept and structure of economic systems:
The economic system is a set of interconnected and
in a certain way ordered elements of the economy,
Forming the economic structure of society. Out of the system
nature of the economy could not be reproduced (constantly
resume) economic relations. Existing economic systems are reflected in
literature. In Soviet economic literature, the most
famous researchers of the economic system of society were K. Marx, J. Kornai. Let's start with the concept of a system, its use has a long history. Translated from Greek, "system" is a kind of whole, consisting of parts. Connected with each other and forming integrity. The main elements of the economic system are socio-economic relations based on the forms of ownership of economic resources and the results of economic activity that have developed in each economic system. The system is characterized by the presence of functions that are not able to perform any of the elements separately, but only the object as a whole. The economic system of society consists of small economic systems - households and enterprises. The household is a small system that represents resource owners and consumers within a family. The main function of the household is the consumption of final products and services produced by enterprises. Company- a small system within which the necessary goods and services are created. Groups of interconnected enterprises are united in industries. Industry is a larger system that unites all enterprises that produce certain products. Industries are combined into larger systems - intersectoral. In addition, the economic system of a society may include other elements: socio-economic systems (economic-political, economic-demographic, natural-economic systems); technical and economic system sectoral, intersectoral, regional systems. All systems serve each other, are united by a single structure of social organization and management, are interconnected through product exchange, and are in constant interaction. An economic system is a complex, ordered set of all economic relations and types of economic activity of a society, the purpose of which is to satisfy the needs of society in material goods and services.
Main types of economic systems:
Depending on the way the main economic problems are solved and the type of ownership of economic resources, we can distinguish four main types of economic systems:
1) traditional;
2) market (capitalism);
3) command (socialism);
4) mixed.
Each of them is looking for its own approaches to solving the main economic issues and ways of distributing limited resources. However, such a distinction of economic systems is rather conditional. In real life, it is difficult to find a state with a purely pronounced type of economic system.
The economic systems operating in the world use various combinations of the above methods of organizing economic life.
Traditional:
The traditional economic system is the oldest system. Exists in underdeveloped countries. This system is based on a mixed economy, widespread manual labor and backward technology.
The multistructural nature of the economy means the existence of various forms; management. In a number of countries natural-communal forms based on communal collective farming and natural forms of product distribution are preserved. In countries with a traditional system, small-scale production, based on private ownership of productive resources and the personal labor of their owner, plays an important role. This includes peasant and handicraft farming.
At the heart of the life of the traditional system are traditions and customs transmitted from generation to generation, religious and cult values, caste and class division, which acts as a brake on socio-economic progress.Of course, traditions also change over time, but very slowly and only due to significant changes in the external conditions of the life of a tribe or nationality. With the stability of these conditions, the traditions of economic life can be preserved for a very long time. In Russia, for example, to this day, elements of the traditional economic system can be found in the organization of the life of the peoples of the North. As for the ownership of economic resources, in the traditional system it was most often collective, that is, hunting grounds, arable land and meadows belonged to the tribe or community. Over time, the main elements of the traditional economic system ceased to suit humanity. Life has shown that factors of production are used more efficiently if they are owned by individual
individuals or families, and not collectively owned. In none of the richest countries in the world is collective property the foundation of society. But in many of the world's poorest countries, remnants of such property have survived. And this is no coincidence. For example, the rapid development of agriculture in Russia took place only at the beginning of the 20th century, when the reforms destroyed the collective (communal) ownership of land, which was replaced by land ownership by individual families. Then came to power in 1917. the communists actually restored communal land tenure, declaring the land "national
property." Having built its agriculture on collective property, the USSR could not for 70 years of the 20th century. achieve food abundance. Moreover, by the beginning of the 1980s, the food situation had become so bad that the CPSU was forced to adopt a special “Food
program”, which, however, was also not implemented, although huge amounts of money were spent on the development of the agricultural sector. On the contrary, agriculture in European countries, the USA and Canada, based on private ownership of land and capital, will solve the problem of creating
food abundance succeeded. And so successfully that the farmers of these countries were able to export a large share of their products to other regions of the world. Practice has shown that markets and firms are better able to solve the problem of distributing limited resources and increasing production volumes, vital goods, than councils of elders - the bodies that made fundamental economic decisions in the traditional system. That is why the traditional economic system eventually ceased to be the basis for organizing people's lives in most countries of the world. Its elements receded into the background and survived only in fragments in the form of various customs and
traditions of secondary importance. In most countries of the world, other ways of organizing the economic cooperation of people play a leading role.
Market system:
market system - a system for organizing the production and distribution of goods, based on the rights of private ownership of factors of production and on decisions made by individuals and firms independently and independently of each other . Right of private property- there is a recognized and legally protected right of an individual to own, use and dispose of certain
the type and volume of limited resources (for example, a piece of land, a coal deposit or a factory), and therefore, to receive income from this. It is the ability to own such a type of production resources as
capital, and to receive income on this basis led to the second, often used, name of this economic system - capitalism. At first, the right to private property was protected only by force of arms, and only kings and feudal lords were the owners. But then, having passed a long way of wars and revolutions, mankind created a civilization in which every citizen could become a private owner if his income allowed him to acquire property. Of course, the market system also has its drawbacks. In particular, it generates huge disparities in levels of income and wealth, with some living in luxury and others living in poverty. We can watch it
today in Russia. Such income disparities have long led people to interpret capitalism as
an “unfair” economic system and dream of a better way of life. These dreams led to the emergence in the XIX century. social movement, called "Marxism" in honor of its main
ideologist - German journalist and economist Karl Marx. He and his followers argued that the market system had exhausted its possibilities.
development and became a brake on the further growth of the well-being of mankind. Therefore, it was proposed to replace it with a new economic system - command or socialism (from the Latin "society" - society).
Command-administrative system - a system for organizing the production and distribution of goods based on state ownership of the factors of production and on decisions centrally made by state economic management bodies and imposed on manufacturers and trade organizations.
The birth of the command economic system was the result of a series of socialist revolutions, the ideological banner of which was Marxism. The specific model of the command system was developed by the leaders of the Russian
communist party andThe command system involves the complete elimination of private property and its replacement with state property. The main economic issues are decided by the state authorities and implemented with the help of binding orders and plans. To do this, the state is forced to regulate all aspects of the economic life of society, including the setting of prices and wages.
The economic activity of manufacturing enterprises in the command system of the USSR was regulated by:
State Planning Committee (what to produce and in what volumes);
the branch ministry (how to produce), which dictated the production technology and allocated funds for the purchase of equipment;
State Committee for Supply (to whom to sell and from whom to buy resources);
State Committee for Pricing (at what price to sell);
The State Committee on Labor and Wages (how much to pay employees), etc.
In accordance with this system, all resources declared to be the property of the whole people are, in fact, completely controlled by state and party officials. As a result, the incomes of people and enterprises cease to depend on how rationally they use resources, how much society really needs the products of their labor. Evaluation of performance results is carried out according to formal criteria, which often do not coincide with the real needs of society. In combination with the egalitarian system of remuneration and the growth of corrupt officials, this leads to people losing interest in work.
The inefficiency of the command system in the USSR and other countries of the former socialist bloc became apparent by the early 1980s. Compared with developed countries, the vast majority of products manufactured in these countries turned out to be uncompetitive due to poor quality and outdated design; the level of well-being and life expectancy of citizens is lower, and infant mortality is higher; the technical level of production is also much lower, environmental pollution is much higher.
Mixed system:
In reality, however, a pure market economy does not exist anywhere. Instead, a system has long been established, which is called mixed. In such a system, some of the factors of production belong to the state, and the government makes some of the economic decisions. There are as many combinations of the market and government sectors in the world as there are countries. But there were and still are a few countries in which the command-administrative system operated. These included the USSR, the GDR, Romania, and others, and today Cuba, the DPRK, and others remain among them. Various models of a mixed economic system have developed.
American model is based on a high level of labor productivity and the orientation of citizens towards achieving personal success. The state encourages entrepreneurial activity, enrichment of the most active part of the population. In the absence of a state policy of social equality, the state, through partial benefits, creates an acceptable standard of living for low-income groups of the population.
Japanese modelbuilt on the preservation of national traditions while borrowing from other countries everything that is needed for the development of their country. National traditions make it possible to create such models of management and organization of production that give the greatest effect only in the conditions of Japan. The Japanese national model is characterized by advanced planning and coordination between the government and the private sector. The economic planning of the state is advisory (optional) in nature. Plans (government programs) orient individual parts of the economy towards the fulfillment of certain national tasks.
Swedish modeleconomy is characterized by the active participation of the state in ensuring economic stability and in the redistribution of national income in favor of the poorest segments of the population. This task is solved by the state through a high rate of taxation, which is more than 50% of the gross national product.
This model is called “functional socialization”, in which the function of production falls on private enterprises operating on a competitive market basis, and the function of ensuring a high standard of living, including employment, education, social insurance, as well as individual elements of infrastructure (transport, etc.) .), - on the state.
The main advantage of the Swedish model lies in the high rates of economic growth, the level of employment and the well-being of the population.
A characteristic feature of a mixed economy is the most efficient use of resources, which contributes to the development and use of advanced technologies. A mixed economy is characteristic of a democratic society, therefore, personal freedom is its basis, allowing the capital of entrepreneurs and workers to move from industry to industry at will, without government directives in search of a rational proposal.
Comparative analysis of mixed and market economy systems.
The differences between the two main types of economic systems are easy to understand if we analyze the way they seek answers to the main economic questions.
The need to address these issues is generated, first of all, by limited resources, which causes a wide variety of consequences. First of all, it leads to competition.
Competition- economic competition between citizens, firms and countries, aimed at getting at their disposal the largest amount (or the best types) of limited resources and getting the maximum benefit from their use.
As a rule, competition plays a positive role in the economic life of society, encouraging citizens, firms and countries to look for the most rational ways to obtain and use scarce resources of all kinds. However, competition can also take forms that cannot be classified as productive. One of these most common forms is queues, where the winner is not the one who did better and has the largest amount of money to buy, but the one who came first. Another form can be called favoritism, privileges. This also includes bribery as a way to get around competitors by bribing officials who distribute scarce resources.
Scarcity inevitably gives rise to the temptation of non-market allocation of resources, usually called rationing. In a command-administrative system, it usually becomes one of the most common types of supply of goods and services to the population. So the whole history of the USSR is replete with examples of various "closed distributors", special stores, cards for goods, coupons, the distribution of shortages among factories and institutions, etc.
Knowing this, let us now try to look at how the same economic task (for example, meeting the need for housing through the distribution of newly built apartments) is solved by different systems - market and command-administrative.
In a market system, the satisfaction of this need in the usual case depends on income and savings, that is, on the availability of funds for a person to buy a home. Ultimately, as it is easy to see, obtaining housing under such a system is directly dependent on the personal abilities, diligence and luck of each person. These factors decide not only about housing in general, but also about specific housing (own house, own apartment, part of a shared house, etc.), its quality and size. It is obvious that such a mechanism for finding an answer to the question of for whom housing is being built stimulates all citizens of society to work intensively and make the best (and therefore the most highly paid) use of their natural abilities.
In the command system, where housing was not the subject of sale and purchase, but the subject of administrative distribution, its receipt depended on other reasons. Here, the mechanisms of inclusion in long-term “queues of those in need of better living conditions”, favoritism, bribery (bribery of officials), fictitious marriages for the sake of reducing the “provision of living space” and divorces after receiving housing, direct violations of criminal law came into play .
Transition period and market reforms in Russia.
Russia is at the stage of transition from a state-monopoly economy to a market one.
Strategic goals of economic reforms in Russia.
1. Formation of a social market economy
2. Creation of a multistructural and multisectoral economy, ensuring that each social group finds its place in the economic system.
3. Transition to a new type of economic growth, focused on meeting the needs of various groups of the population.
4. Creation of material prerequisites for a favorable and comfortable living environment, corresponding to the modern possibilities of technical and social progress.
Conditions for the transition to a market economy in Russia.
1. Ensuring freedom of economic activity.
2. Through denationalization and privatization, the creation of a variety of forms of ownership.
3 .Promoter competition development in order tobusiness promotion
4. Formation of the mechanism of free pricing.
5. Preservation along with the spread of market relations of a significant non-market sector of the economy.
6. Consistent integration of the national economy into the system of world economic relations.
7. Providing by the state of social guarantees to citizens, providing equal opportunities in earning money and supporting disabled and socially vulnerable members of society.
Conclusion:
The economic life of mankind can be arranged in various ways. These differences are most pronounced in the ways in which economic decisions are made and the type of ownership of the main types of resources. Mankind knows four types of economic systems: traditional, market, command and mixed. The market system implies such a structure of the economic life of society, in which all economic resources are privately owned, and all decisions are made in the respective markets. These markets are not restricted or regulated by anyone. command system. Such an economic system presupposes the elimination of private ownership of the factors of production and its replacement with state ownership. The main economic issues are decided by the state authorities and implemented with the help of binding orders and plans. To do this, the state is forced to regulate all aspects of the economic life of society, including the setting of prices and wages. The poor functioning of such a system is associated with
the loss of people's interest in work and the assessment of its results according to formal
criteria that may not coincide with the real needs of society.
Mixed economic system. This economic system involves a combination of private ownership of the vast majority of economic resources with limited state ownership. The state participates in solving basic economic issues not with the help of plans, but by centralizing at its disposal a part of economic resources. These resources are allocated in such a way as to compensate for some weaknesses in the market mechanisms.
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